Xenophon - The Shorter Writings

The Shorter Writings by Xenophon, published by Cornell University Press in 2018, offers a scholarly treatment as befitting a book under the imprint of Agora Editions, which were founded by the pre-eminent Plato expert, Allan Bloom, whose translation and interpretive essay on The Republic is the definitive modern treatment of that masterpiece. This collection is edited by Gregory A. McBrayer, Asst. Professor at Ashland College who teaches Political Philosophy, which suits Xenophon’s Writings here, since five of them fall under this category of study.? Each of the 8 works appears in new, literal translations, and each is accompanied by deeply enriching interpretive essays. For readers who are interested in learning all they can about Xenophon as a unique philosopher, political theorist and historian, this book is the perfect source for this knowledge.

Regime of the Lacedaemonians

??????????????? Xenophon was born to a wealthy Athenian family, which while a democracy was far from a classless society. The rich lived a different life than the poor, with more resources in everything from material wealth to education, to expectations of a worthy life. A perfect example of this is that Xenophon was wealthy enough to join Cyrus’ Persian Expedition without expecting pay or rank, and even bringing his own horses and servants. It is understandable that he would admire the well-structured society and government of Sparta which was led by two hereditary kings whose primary responsibility was to personally lead the army to battle in war. Even these kings were subject to the judgement and rule by five all-powerful ephors who were elected to single, one-year terms. Spartiates, who had served in the military since their youth and survived to reach retirement from combat at age 60 years were elected to a permanent group called the Gerousia to judge capital cases and provide guidance on the most important debates. And like other Greek cities, Sparta had an Assembly of the people that voted on critical decisions like going to war. In this book, Xenophon describes how this stable, sensible form of government was devised and implemented by the legendary Law Giver, Lycurgus.

???????????? In the other cities, the more powerful do not wish even to seem to fear the rulers, but believe this to be servile. In Sparta, by contrast, the strongest both defer most of all to the rulers and take great pride in being submissive and in answering whenever they are called, running, not walking; for they believe that if they themselves take the lead in zealously obeying, so too others will follow.

??????????????? Sparta had been governed under the same constitution for hundreds of years, and while among the smallest of ancient Greek city-states, was the most powerful. By comparison, it was only in 508 that the Spartans forced Hippias, the last tyrant of Athens to flee and opened the way for the founding of democracy by Cleisthenes. But the Regime of the Lacedaemonians is not all praise and admiration, in Chapter 14 of 15 chapters, Xenophon offers a short but devastating criticism of Spartans who have gone abroad and behaved as greedy harmosts governing subject cities and islands.

To be sure, one need not wonder that these reproaches have arisen against them, when they are manifestly obeying neither the god nor the laws of Lycurgus.

Regime of the Athenians

This work came down to us as part of the writings of Xenophon, but modern scholarship has determined it was probably not written by him. It provides a negative view of Athens’ implementation of direct democracy, as he states in his opening: “But concerning the regime of the Athenians … I do not praise, for the following reason: in choosing these things, they chose to make the vulgar better than the worthy.” Xenophon is a well-known Laconophile, an admirer of the Spartans, as we saw in his high regard for the highly structured government and society he described in the previous book on their Regime. He explains why the Athenians have chosen this form of government, based on the most critical elements of their success as the Greek world’s most powerful navy.

First, then, I will say this: that both the poor and the people there justly have more than the well-born and the wealthy – and for this reason, that it is the people who row the ships and bestow the power on the city, along with the pilots and the boatswains and the ensigns and the lookouts and the shipbuilders – it is these who bestow power on the city, much more than do the hoplites and the well-born and the worthy. So since this is how things are, it seems just for everyone to participate in the offices, both those drawn by lot and those elected by vote, and to allow any citizen who wishes, to speak.”

??????????????? In a very short description, he depicts the direct democracy of Athens that his contemporary readers would be completely familiar with. Modern readers naturally compare the term “democracy” to today’s governments, but notice how office holders can be selected “by lot” and “by vote.” Many officers were chosen for one year terms at random, assuming any citizen is the equal for doing the work of government. The most responsible officers, the archons and generals of the year are chosen by vote, but again, anyone can run for election. Xenophon’s unspoken disapproval is based on his belief that these critical roles should be filled by men who are trained and capable of doing the best job for society. Throughout this book he continues to describe both the benefits and failings of such a society, always recognizing the great achievements and power of Athens, but his criticism is unwavering in their form of government as a matter of political philosophy.

Hiero, or the Skilled Tyrant

??????????????? This book is a fictional conversation between two historical figures where Xenophon is demonstrating his training under Socrates via an investigation in political philosophy. Simonides of Ceos is a great lyric poet who lived from 556 to 468 B.C., experiencing both the tyranny of the Peisistratids in Athens and the great triumphs of the Greeks over the Persian Invasions of 490 and 480. Hiero was the tyrant of Syracuse, Sicily as the most powerful ruler in Magna Graecia (“Greater Greece” refers to the coastal areas of southern Italy which were colonized by various ancient Greek city-states from the 8th to 5th centuries BCE.),. Xenophon explores whether there can be good rule under a tyrant, whether a tyrant can be a good man, and Hiero himself disputes that life is better for the tyrant than his subjects.

Agesilaus

??????????????? This book is an encomium, that is Xenophon’s formal expression of glowing praise for the Spartan King Agesilaus II who lived from c. 440 – c. 360 B.C., who was both Xenophon’s military leader and benefactor. Because the whole work is designed to praise the king as an ideal man, it can’t be read as objective history or biography, but given that the reader knows its purpose, the book reads as an interesting view of Agesilaus’ accomplishments and Xenophon’s presentation of Spartan ideals. Much of the book recounts events that he covered in the last books of the Hellenika, with only minor changes.

(Agesilaus) wielded a very heavy hand as an antagonist but a very light one once he had prevailed; to enemies, he was very difficult to deceive, to friends, very easy to persuade. And while he always placed in safety what belongs to friends, he took as his task always to damage what belongs to enemies.

Ways and Means, or On Revenues

??????????????? Xenophon provides economic theories for Athens to sustain its wealth and its citizens’ well-being after being deprived of its colonies, and therefore unable to live on the predatory profits of imperialism. It reads as an attempt to be as positive as possible and to make the best of limited circumstances. He shows that the Law of Supply and Demand was the same in antiquity as it is now. In the quote below Xenophon makes the point that the demand for silver from the mines at Laurium will never decline, unlike other how the market values other goods and services.

It is not the same as when there are many bronze-smiths and works in bronze become inexpensive, so the bronze-smiths quit; so too those who work in iron. And when there is a great deal of grain and wine, and crops become inexpensive, farming becomes unprofitable …. But to the extent that more silver ore comes to light and there is more silver, to this extent more take up this line of work.

The Skilled Cavalry Commander

??????????????? This book offers Xenophon’s expertise in the area in which he has excelled throughout his life. Readers of Anabasis will recognize tactics he has practiced with his cavalry in battle, and readers of Hellenika will recall his analysis of mounted combat and the strengths and weaknesses he has described. This is clearly not simply a work of theory and training, these are insights from lived experience, while at the same time offering completely practical advice to men who will lead cavalry into the most dire contests. While considered one of his lesser works, it provides an example of Xenophon’s workmanlike approach to training for war.

Those who have been taught and habituated to leap across ditches, jump over walls, bound up steep hills, descend safely from high places, ride swiftly downward – these would surpass those who neglected these things to the same degree that winged creatures surpass those on foot.

On Horsemanship

In this short work Xenophon offers practical lessons on everything involved in working with horses, from initially evaluating and buying both colts and mature horses who have been in service, to practical methods of feeding and stabling, to in-depth instructions on training for riding with an emphasis on fighting on horseback, including recommended armor and protection for both rider and steed. In the appreciative introduction in this Agora Edition, Amy L. Bonnette provides perspective with these remarks: “Expert equestrians continue to read On Horsemanship two millennia after his advice to younger friends on how to manage their horses. Aside from Xenophon’s expertise … He discusses the beauty of horses’ souls as well as their bodies, and he insists on using persuasion in training….”

If one wishes, then, to manage a horse that is suitable for procession, lofty, and splendid, such characteristics are not likely to come from every horse, but it must have a high-minded soul and a vigorous body.

The One Skilled at Hunting with Dogs

??????????????? This is a book all dog lovers will cherish, it is immediately apparent that Xenophon is devoted to his dogs. He begins the work with a discussion of the gods and heroes, putting dogs at the top of the list of gifts to man.

The invention of the gods, of Apollo and Artemis, are the chase and dogs; they gave this gift to Cheiron and thus honored him for his justice. He accepted this gift with joy and put it to use.

??????????????? Through Xenophon’s timeless writing the reader can feel himself walking in the fields, hunting in all weather, tracking in snow and cultivated fields, understanding the suitability of certain dogs to varying prey from hares to deer to boar. The chapters on the use of carefully designed and placed nets and snares, which breeds of dogs to be used for specific hunting tasks, the methods required such as javelins for boar, are fascinating reading that is as accurate today as it was 2500 years ago.

??????????????? And then at the end of this wonderful book, Xenophon, always the philosopher, comments on those who prey on society compared to those who use dogs to defend the towns against preying beasts.

But the sophists speak and write in order to deceive and for their own gain, and they do not benefit anyone in any way; for not one of them ever became wise, nor is wise, but it suffices for each to be called a sophist – which is a term of reproach, at least among those who have good sense. … For while the sophists hunt the wealthy and the young, the philosophers are sharers and friends with all….

??????????? The Education of Cyrus

??????????????? The Education of Cyrus is Xenophon’s other work, which in addition to his Socratic dialogues completes the collection. It is available under the imprint of Agora Editions, published by Cornell University Press in 2001. Wayne Ambler provides this first new translation of this work since 1914, as well as helpful annotations to this novel length (324 pages) treatment. Xenophon writes of Cyrus the Great (590-580 to 529 B.C.), who founded the Achaemenian Empire, and is known as the father of the Persians. Cyrus appears in The Histories of Herodotus where we read of Croesus, King of Lydia, catastrophically misinterpreting an oracle and going to his defeat after declaring war against the Persian King. This Cyrus also appears in the Bible at Ezra 1:1–4, where he frees the Jews from the Babylonians and allows them to return to their homeland.

??????????????? Under Xenophon’s treatment, the story of Cyrus is presented as an analysis of leadership, an idealized, fictional biography devised for the edification of the Greeks. The Education of Cyrus is another example of Xenophon writing on political philosophy while writing about an historical leader, as he did in Agesilaus. In both of these cases, we learn about the times when these great men lived as their stories tell us how they directed and responded to the events they lived through. In this sense, just as we see in Plutarch’s Lives, we enjoy a tour of contemporaneous history while studying the biographies of outstanding individuals.