Why Egyptian Farmers Abandon Agricultural Land? A Brief Review
Abstract
This paper explores the historical and contemporary factors contributing to the abandonment of agricultural land in Egypt, a phenomenon that has persisted for centuries. It identifies key constant factors, such as political instability, neglect of irrigation infrastructure, extreme weather events, and taxation, which have led to land abandonment since ancient times. From the mid-20th century, economic and institutional challenges, including soil degradation, migration, and financial burdens, further exacerbated the issue. The construction of the Aswan High Dam and subsequent agricultural liberalization policies have also played significant roles in changing the landscape of land use and farming practices. In recent decades, issues such as water scarcity, climate change, and rapid urban expansion, coupled with high input costs and limited support for smallholders, continue to drive agricultural land abandonment. Overall, the abandonment of agricultural land in Egypt is a complex issue shaped by a combination of historical, environmental, economic, and political factors. However, the treatment and use of agricultural land after its abandonment varied over time.
Introduction
Egyptian farmers are abandoning agricultural land. This is not a new phenomenon, on the contrary it has been a feature of agricultural production since ancient time. Some reasons for abandoning the land have stayed constant while others have varied over time.
Political instability and wars, neglect of irrigation infrastructure, annual Nile flooding and government policies are the constant factors. On the other hand, economic, insitutional and soil related challenges dominated the rural scene since the mid 20th century. These challenges include market related factors, tax and loan burdens, low land profitability due to high input costs and low market prices, migration, water shortage, soil degradation, salinization and climate change.
For ease of addressing the different factors affecting land abandonment in Egypt this review is divided into three main periods:
First Period reviews land abandonment from ancient time until the early 1950s, primarily because land abandonment reasons did not differ much. The transition to the second period was preceded by the formalization of agricultural land property rights that marked a turning point in land use. Additonally, the construction of the Aswan Dam contributed to the initial reduction of the negative impact of both low and high floods.
Second Period? spans from the mid 1950s until 2011. It covers the time between Egypt’s two revolutions. This period was characterized by the introduction of varied agricultural land laws, the construction and completion of the High Aswan Dam in 1970, wars and low investement in irrigation and drainage infrastructure, which rendered some of the most fertile soils in the world unprofitable.
Third Period covers the time after 2011 until today. It is marked by exacerbated land abandonment due to land fragmentation as a result of rapid population growth, water scarcity, climate change and increased land grabbing and over-exploitation.
Agricultural land abandoned during these three periods was treated differently, a topic that is discussed at the end of each period.
?First Period: From ancient time until the mid 20th century
Historically, Egyptian farmers have abandoned their agricultural land due to low and high floods, political instability, neglect of irrigation infrastructure, as well as increased financial burdens and taxes. These factors are outlined below:
?? - Prolonged droughts and/or poor flooding conditions or high floods that rendered land unproductive (good floods fell between 16 and 19 cubits), causing hunger and leading to farmers abandonment of their villages in search for food. During ancient time, the collapse of the old Kingdom is attributed to low floods.
“The key factor in the collapse of the monarchy was the loss of revenues from the provinces as famine became widespread because of persistently low Nile floods. Conditions worsened as peasants died in large numbers thus reducing the size of the labour force. Even when good floods returned agricultural productivity was low.” (Hassan 2007, p. 365[1])
?? - Political instability and the neglect of the maintenance of the irrigation infrastructure and the digging of canals for flood water saving, caused agricultural lands to become less productive and eventually abandoned. During the Mamluk dynasty, particularly towards the end of its reign, power struggles and tumultuous successions were common. This environment of competition and turmoil left little resources or attention for maintaining irrigation infrastructure.
“al-Maqrīzī ..blamed the corrupt use of the tax monies collected for maintaining the dams, the cornerstone of the irrigation system, as a chief cause of the breakdown in agricultural production from the rule of the sultan Faraj ibn Barqūq (r. 801-8/1399-1405) onwards.” (Quickel 2015, p. 30[2])
Furthermore, often the neglect of maintaining the irrigation infrastructure - which is a labor-intensive system- ?was a result of the scarcity of rural labor following recurring plague outbreaks that was very common in Egypt until the early 20th century.
?? - The tax system in general throughout history and particularly the tax-farming system (Iltizam) introduced in the 16th century, created economic pressures on farmers and allowed tax collectors to impose unreasonably high taxes on farmers, and farmers had to give up their land if they were unable to meet the financial demands. (Nofal 1995[3])
Before the formalization of agricultural land ownership, farmers did not have the right to buy or sell land. They were only allowed to keep a portion of the harvest for themselves, while the remainder was handed over to the tax collector, known as the multazim.
-The growing profitability of the?Iltizam?system, coupled with the expansion of local notables’ landholdings through the takeover of land abandoned by farmers, and later the formalization of property rights, encouraged many well-off farmers (large landowners) to voluntarily leave their agricultural lands. They sought to join the urban elite, becoming members of the early judiciary councils and, later, the parliament. Meanwhile, they often left the management of their land to a family member or a local manager, such as a?kholy?or?nazer.
? - In the early 19th century, Muhammad Ali’s military campaigns expanded, necessitating the mobilization of farmers for forced labor on state projects and compulsory military conscription.
Farmers who were forced to work on state projects “…. fled repeatedly [back] to their villages where they were caught and sent back again and again. If farmers did not succeed in escaping, they would bribe state officials to mitigate their works ...” (Moustafa 2017, p.111[4])
Regarding forced military conscription “… the fellahin often deserted their villages altogether to avoid being taken into the army.” (Fahmy 1998, p. 430[5])
- Muhammad Ali and his successors focused on the export of profitable cash crops, particularly cotton, and encouraged the establishment of large estates or plantations known as?ezba. Smallholders and landless farmers were often forced to work on these estates for very low wages, or they found themselves vulnerable to the fluctuations of global markets. To cope with the growing commercial agricultural sector, many smallholders took loans from banks and moneylenders at high interest rates, which they frequently struggled to repay. As a result, these loans led to the loss of their land and forced them into abandoning it.
According to Richards “The rise to power of rural moneylenders was an integral part of the rise of cotton cultivation and paralleled the peasants’ loss of land.”?(Richards 1980[6])
- The British administration sought to address the loss of land by smallholders following the 1907 financial crisis, which had led to the confiscation of land due to farmers' inability to repay loans. This attempt was made through the introduction of the "Five Feddan Law" in 1912, which prohibited banks from legally seizing smallholdings of less than five feddans. (Richards 1978). However, this measure proved insufficient in protecting peasants from moneylenders. (Kazziha 1970: p.121[7])?
?? - Between 1938 and 1952, the lack of security, high land rents, and oppressive conditions in rural areas led many farmers to abandon their land, often migrating to nearby towns or cities in search of better opportunities.
“… farmers were subjected to monopsonistic power and lived in conditions of poverty rooted in depressed earnings; low wages, forced labour, high rents, easy eviction from rented land, loss of land property rights through indebtedness, lack of access to basic education and health services, and a very low demand outside agriculture for the ever increasing number of the labour force.” (El-Ghonemy 2006, p. 131[8])
What happened to the land after it was abandoned?
The land was left fallow in cases of low or high floods, as well as during plagues. When forced labor or military conscription occurred, the land was often taken over by other farmers—usually family members—or redistributed to other agricultural workers. Similarly, when farmers were unable to repay loans or taxes, their land was seized by banks, wealthy landowners or moneylenders, who would then allocate it to other farmers to cultivate it on their behalf.
Despite these transfers, the land continued to be used for agricultural purposes, as farming was the primary source of surplus. Agricultural production relied on small farmers who had limited or no alternative economic opportunities. These farmers were mainly subsistence farmers, depending on agriculture for their livelihoods, with the exception of a small percentage of large landowners. Agricultural land provided wealthy landowners with the necessary funds to expand their land ownership and enhance their social status, while supplying the state with the surplus required to finance various projects undertaken by the rulers.
?Second Period: From 1952 until 2011
The period between the two revolutions was characterized by land abandonment that can be attributed to the migration of agricultural labor force, soil degradation, agricultural liberalization, and water scarcity. These are addressed below:
?? - Since the early 1950s, migration to urban areas increased as people, particularly younger generations, sought better economic opportunities and higher wages, especially in state construction projects in cities and, later, in the construction of the High Aswan Dam.
“…between 1947 and 1960 employment in construction increased by 37% at an annual rate of increase of 2.4%. … Moreover, up to the middle of the 1950's there was a housing boom which pushed up employment in construction.” (Choukri, Eckaus & Mohie Eldine, 1979: p. 36[9])
- However, migration in large numbers, causing a severe decline in the available agricultural labor force, exacerbated with the introdcution of the "Open-Door" Policy (Infitah) since the late 1970s that allowed agricultural laborers to travel to oil producing countries.
“…the number of registered emigrants increased from 70,000 in 1970 to a reported 1.4 million in 1976 and to 2.3 million in 1986.” (Zohry 2007, p. 40[10])
???? - Migration is often linked to the economic non-viability of small landholdings, as agricultural land is divided among heirs. For many smallholder families, these fragmented plots were insufficient to provide a decent livelihood, prompting young men to migrate while leaving women and elderly men to manage the land. This shift contributed to the emergence of what is known as the “feminization of agriculture.”
?? - After the completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1970, the Nile Delta and Valley did not suffer from low or high floods anymore, however, other types of problems appreared such as loss of soil degradation, increased water tables and soil salinization that became common features of rural areas and necessitated increased use of fertilizers and required well functing drainage systems.
During Sadat “Egypt, …[suffered from] serious problems ranging from deterioration of the soil, the loss of perhaps as much as one percent of the cultivated surface a year to urban sprawl and, at the end of the period, quite serious labor shortages due to migration.” (Owen 1983 [11])
- The economic liberalization implemented through the structural adjustment programs financed by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in the late 1980s shifted the agricultural sector toward a market-oriented economy. The focus was on attracting foreign investment for the reclamation of new land, while reducing support and input subsidies for small farmers, leaving them unprotected in the face of market forces. As a result, many farmers found it increasingly difficult to sustain agricultural production. Some hopeless farmers who did not migrate sought to make money by excavating their land and selling the heavy fertile black soil to brick factories that continued until the 1990s as well as building on their land.
?? - Insufficient government investment in rural infrastructure, such as irrigation and drainage systems, coupled with a focus on large cities and land reclamation, left many farmers in the Old Lands struggling to maintain their land. This, in turn, amplified the phenomenon of building on agricultural land. At the same time, many smallholders in areas around Cairo and Giza (Greater Cairo) were often forced to sell their land to developers or government-backed projects aimed at building new cities and housing developments.?
?? - In the 2000s, Egypt began to experience the early effects of climate change, including rising temperatures, droughts, and water shortages. These challenges worsened the difficulties faced by farmers, forcing them to rely on drainage water for irrigation due to water scarcity. This, in turn, contributed to soil degradation and significantly reduced the productivity of many agricultural lands.
- The issuance of the Landowners and Tenants Law (96/1992), which came into effect in 1997, forced many farmers and tenants to abandon their land. The law abolished the agrarian land reform policies that had fixed land rents and removed perpetual inheritance rights, allowing land rents to be determined by the market. As a result, approximately 900,000 tenants who had been cultivating the land for decades were forced to either leave or accept market-based rent contracts. (Gouda 2022[12])
What happened to the land after it was abandoned?
Agricultural land increasingly suffered from poor drainage systems and inadequate irrigation infrastructure, leading to soil degradation. During this period, labor shortages, declining land returns, limited investment in agriculture, and the growth of alternative income sources accelerated the shift away from traditional agricultural land uses.
Despite these changes, agricultural land and production remained a key source of surplus, providing essential revenue for the state and large merchants, particularly through exports. Agricultural production also continued as a subsistence activity, sustaining the livelihoods of about 50% of Egyptian farmers in the Old Lands. Households that could diversify their income sources relied on their small plots of land to produce food and fodder, as purchasing these from the market was often more expensive. Additionally, land produced food at reasonable prices, which helped feed the urban population and maintain political stability.
However, the growth of more profitable alternative opportunities led to farmers abandoning agricultural production. As a result, in many cases, land was either lost to urbanization or remained underutilized due to insufficient investments.
Third Period: From 2011 until today
During this period, many Egyptian farmers continue to abandon their agricultural land. The key factors driving this trend today are economic, social, environmental, and political ones, although their impact varies across different regions and governorates. These factors can be summarized as follows:
?? - One of the primary reasons for land abandonment today is the low profitability of agriculture. This has been exacerbated by increased land fragmentation and rising input costs, particularly following the devaluation of the local currency, a measure prescribed by the IMF. Additionally, the reduction of subsidies for essential agricultural inputs, such as fertilizers, is further discouraging farmers from continuing their agricultural production activities. In response “…some farmers choose to abandon their land, farm only plants for livestock (less risk and expense) or stop planting water intensive crops such as tomatoes, cucumbers, onions, green beans, and peas.” (Makhlouf 2023, p. 38[13])
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-Farming families seek to diversify their income sources, while depending less on agriculture. This may gradually lead to the loss of indigenous farming knowledge as family farms that once relied on generational knowledge and experience are left untended as younger farmers prefer alternative employment. According to Sattar et al. (2024) “High levels of abandonment of farming were identified, with 45% of households abandoning agricultural activity in 2018 having participated in agriculture in 2012. (Sattar et al. 2024, p. 10[14])
- Accelerated construction on agricultural land, which is an outcome of low land profitability that exacerbated after the 2011 Revolution.
“…[T]he annual urban growth on agricultural land was about 30,000 feddan, but after 2011 it increased to about 50,000 feddan annually, which means that urban expansion on agricultural land has increased by 40% after 2011 in Egypt.” (Gouda 2020, p. 532[15])
Throughout the Nile Delta and Valley, urban areas are expanding, with many farmers building on their agricultural land to accommodate married children, as alternative housing is often beyond their financial means. However, the government is now increasing enforcement and imposing penalties for construction on agricultural land. In such cases, smallholders may be left with little choice but to either continue their production under difficult conditions or sell their land to larger landowners. This trend could gradually advance the government's goal of land consolidation in the Old Land of the Nile Delta and Valley governorates.
- Agricultural land is facing many challenges related to water resulting from population growth, limited water resources and climate change.
The Egytpian population in November 2024 accounted for about 117 million people. As a result of this population growth “Egypt is moving towards absolute water scarcity with less than 500?m3?per capita of annual water supply.” (OECD 2024[16])
Furthermore, upstream developments, such as the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD), exert significant pressure on Egypt, which depends on the Nile for about 90% of its freshwater. The construction of dams along the Nile and the uncoordinated operation of these dams can lead to severe water scarcity, particularly during drought seasons.
Water scarcity makes farming less sustainable and less profitable, especially in areas reliant on traditional irrigation practices and technologies. Smallholder farmers, with limited financial resources and/or difficulty accessing credit, are often unable to invest in modern farming and irrigation technologies, which are necessary to sustain their land, improve yields, and increase income.
-Climate change further exacerbates the problem of water scarcity in Egypt. That would affect water quantity and quality “… loss to water quality caused by salt water inundation and a decline to water quantity caused by hotter temperatures.”?(Goodman 2021[17]). These factors are not only affecting water quality and quantity but also spoiling agricultural land.
“The combination of poor irrigation water quality, shallow saline groundwater tables, and low-permeability soils created a synergistic effect that severely compromised soil health and agricultural productivity.” (Hagage et al. 2024[18])
-Land abandonment in Egypt is not uniform as it varies significantly across different regions. In some parts of the Nile Delta, where agricultural land is traditionally highly productive, land abandonment may be more linked to factors like water scarcity of fresh and drainage water.
According to Tawfik et al. “…the full realization of waste/drainage water reallocation to the new lands would leave many more downstream and tail-end smallholders in the Delta without enough water for irrigation… In this context, farmers would either abandon their lands and seek alternative sources of income, …, or they might develop informal practices to access freshwater from irrigation canals or groundwater.” (Tawfik et al. 2024[19])
In contrast, in Upper Egypt, land abandonment is often linked to limited opportunities and high poverty rates, driven by extreme land fragmentation and the impacts of climate change. Extreme weather events, such as flash floods, have a significant effect on agricultural production, further exacerbating the challenges faced by farmers in the region. In November 2021, Aswan governorate experienced heavy rains that caused “Significant agricultural and livestock losses, food, and crops were rendered useless by the floods in more than 11 villages across the affected areas.” ([20])
- In newly reclaimed desert areas, some agricultural land is abandoned due to poor soil conditions, inadequate irrigation infrastructure, or a lack of funding. However, land grabbing has become a prominent issue in Egypt during the 2020s, which could lead to the over-exploitation of groundwater and its depletion. In the medium to long term, this could contribute to increased abandonment of agricultural land in the New Lands or place excessive constraints on the water resources allocated to the Old Lands. According to Abdel-Shafy & Kamel (2016) “There is a real danger of groundwater depletion, particularly in the shallow aquifer in some areas as the Western Desert, Eastern Desert and Sinai.” (Abdel-Shafy & Kamel 2016, p. 350[21])
What happened to the land after it was abandoned?
The area of aricultural land in the Old Lands has decreased due to fragmentation caused by population growth and the establishment of borders between tiny plots to delineate ownership. Despite government penalties, farmers continue to build on their land where possible, driven by low returns from agriculture and a desire to diversify their income. Meanwhile, the government is investing heavily in the expansion of agricultural land through land reclamation projects by encouraging private sector involvement. Agriculture has become a focal point, supported by the government, international organizations, and the private sector.
Conclusions and Recommendations
Agricultural land was abandoned by farmers for various reasons, including flooding, plagues, military conscription, and financial difficulties. Despite these challenges, the land often remained in agricultural use, as farming was crucial for producing surplus. However, over time, poor drainage, outdated irrigation systems, and soil degradation reduced the land's productivity.
As migration increased and alternative income opportunities grew, farming began to be seen as a secondary activity by many smallholders, or some farmers abandoned agriculture altogether. The trend of repurposing agricultural land is further driven by urban expansion and low land profitability, leaving the future of both farmers and agricultural land uncertain. This uncertainty is compounded by factors such as population growth, water scarcity, and climate change, all of which could further constrain agricultural production.
Additionally, the expansion of agriculture into desert areas—where land is often easier to manage and control compared to the fragmented plots owned by smallholders—coupled with increased private sector investments, may further reduce the water allocated to the Old agricultural lands. This shift could accelerate the abandonment of farmland by small-scale farmers, deepening the challenges facing the agricultural sector.
To stop the cycle of land abandonment these challenges (e.g. urban expansion, low land profitability, and climate change affecting agricultural land, etc.) need to be addressed:?
1. Enforce Regulations: Implement and enforce land-use regulations to protect agricultural land, while offering incentives for sustainable agricultural practices (e.g. carbon credit). Additionally, streamline and expedite existing conflict resolution mechanisms to increase trust and enhance cooperation.
2. Improve Water Management: Adopt water-efficient practices, such as modern irrigation techniques and drought-resistant crop varieties, to address water scarcity,. Reform water allocation policies to ensure equitable distribution between Old and New Lands, and invest in alternative water sources, like desalination, for agricultural use.?
3. Support Smallholder Farmers: Provide financial and technical support to small farmers through low-interest loans and training on sustainable agricultural practices to help them compete with larger farmers. Provide improved access to marketing platforms and contract farming, which can ensure smallholders a stable income. This approach would allow them to continue farming for years and can foster cooperation with neighboring farmers to increase their collective profits.
4. Enhance Farmers' Cooperation: Support farmers' organizations, such as agricultural cooperatives (e.g. issuance of new law) and water users' associations, to play a critical role in reversing the loss of agricultural land in the Old Lands. Their focus should extend beyond water management and efficient production to include the creation of businesses that recycle agricultural waste and promote sustainable practices.
5. Improve extension services: Expand research and extension services to help farmers improve their resilience. Access to information and training programs can equip farmers with the skills needed to thrive in a changing environment. Promote climate-resilient crops and climate-smart agricultural practices. Encourage investment in green technologies such as precision farming and renewable energy for farms, and support water-smart irrigation systems.
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