"When Unsolicited Water PPPs Fail: Lessons from Bolivia, South Africa, and Indonesia’s Ir. H. Djuanda/Jatiluhur II Drinking Water Supply System"

Water is life, yet millions still struggle for access due to flawed public-private partnerships (PPPs). Failure becomes inevitable when governments rush into unsolicited PPP projects without robust regulations, financial planning, and community involvement. From Bolivia to Indonesia, these failures reveal urgent lessons in governance, transparency, and the dire need for sustainable solutions.

Unsolicited Public-Private Partnership (PPP) water sector projects frequently fail due to financial, regulatory, and social constraints. This analysis reviews significant failures in Bolivia, South Africa, and Indonesia, focusing on the Djuanda/Jatiluhur II project, the Cochabamba Water Privatization, the Jakarta Water Concession, and the Cape Town Desalination PPP. The Jakarta Water Concession illustrates challenges such as unclear regulations and inadequate oversight, leading to service delivery failures and increased tariffs without improvements, exacerbating inequalities (Afghani, 2012; Bakker, 2007). Similarly, the Cochabamba privatization sparked protests over soaring prices, highlighting the need for stakeholder engagement (Carbonara & Pellegrino, 2018). The Cape Town Desalination PPP also faced financial sustainability issues amid climate change concerns (Himmel & Siemiatycki, 2017). These case studies emphasize the necessity for robust regulatory frameworks and integrated planning to enhance the success of future PPP initiatives in water service delivery (Wardhana, 2024).

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Introduction

The provision of water as a fundamental human right often becomes contentious when facilitated through unsolicited Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs). The failures of these projects highlight a complex interplay of governance, finance, and public trust. Strong political commitment is crucial; research indicates that such support significantly influences the success of water PPPs by fostering transparency and accountability, thereby mitigating risks associated with poor governance (Nguyen et al., 2021; Ameyaw et al., 2017).

Divergent interests among stakeholders complicate the management of these partnerships. Balancing incentives is essential for maintaining public trust and ensuring effective service delivery (Brinkerhoff & Brinkerhoff, 2011). Experiences from various countries demonstrate that inadequate stakeholder engagement and neglecting community needs can lead to public backlash and project failures (Shambaugh & Joshi, 2021).

The lessons learned from past unsolicited water PPP projects emphasize the necessity for robust governance frameworks, active stakeholder involvement, and strong political commitment. These elements are vital for enhancing the sustainability and effectiveness of water service delivery through PPPs (Surachman et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2023).

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Background

Unsolicited Public-Private Partnership (PPP) projects in the water sector face significant challenges, including financial viability, public opposition, and regulatory hurdles. While these projects can offer efficiency gains, they often struggle to align with the fundamental human right to water, emphasizing affordability and equitable access. Financial risks are substantial, as many projects have trouble securing adequate funding and managing costs effectively (Nguyen et al., 2021; Akomea-Frimpong et al., 2020).

Public opposition, driven by political instability and lack of transparency, can lead to distrust in government initiatives, complicating PPP implementation (Osei‐Kyei & Chan, 2017; Hayllar, 2010). Furthermore, governance frameworks often lack the robustness needed for accountability and stakeholder engagement, which is essential for maintaining public trust (Roberts & Siemiatycki, 2015). Enhancing governance and actively engaging communities are crucial for the success of these projects (Zhou & Hou, 2023; Chen, 2024).

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Objective

This analysis of unsuccessful unsolicited Public-Private Partnership (PPP) projects in the water sector in Bolivia, South Africa, and Indonesia identifies critical factors contributing to their failure. Financial viability is a primary concern, as many projects struggle to secure adequate funding and manage costs effectively, often resulting in project abandonment or suboptimal service delivery (Akomea-Frimpong et al., 2023; Akomea-Frimpong et al., 2021). For example, the Cochabamba Water Privatization faced severe financial constraints, leading to public backlash and re-nationalization (Bayliss, 2003).

Regulatory hurdles significantly impact these projects as well. Inadequate governance frameworks and lack of transparency foster mistrust among stakeholders, complicating PPP management (Tariq & Zhang, 2021; Chan et al., 2015). The Cape Town Desalination PPP exemplifies this, where regulatory challenges hindered implementation. To enhance future water PPPs, prioritizing robust financial risk management and establishing clear regulatory frameworks is essential (Akomea-Frimpong et al., 2023; Akomea-Frimpong et al., 2021).

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Literature Review

Unsolicited Public-Private Partnership (PPP) projects in the water sector frequently fail due to interrelated factors. A primary issue is the lack of stakeholder engagement, which can result in insufficient public support and ownership. Research shows that when stakeholders, especially local communities, are not actively involved in decision-making, the likelihood of project failure increases significantly (Amadi et al., 2018; Mandiriza & Fourie, 2023). Engaging stakeholders fosters collaboration and ensures projects align with community needs, enhancing transparency and support (Jiaqi, 2023; Mandiriza & Fourie, 2023).

Financial constraints and high tariffs also critically contribute to project failures. Elevated costs associated with water services can incite public opposition and decrease accessibility, undermining the fundamental right to water (Akomea-Frimpong et al., 2023; Akomea-Frimpong et al., 2021). Studies indicate that when financial models fail to consider affordability for end-users, projects encounter significant resistance (Bayliss, 2003; Tariq & Zhang, 2021).

Regulatory and legal barriers further complicate unsolicited PPP projects. Inadequate legal frameworks create uncertainty for private investors, discouraging participation and leading to delays or cancellations (Chan et al., 2015; Wibowo & Mohamed, 2010). Weak governance structures exacerbate these issues, hindering effective oversight and accountability, resulting in mismanagement and inefficiencies (Auliya, 2023; Zhong et al., 2008).

To improve future water PPPs, prioritizing stakeholder engagement, establishing clear regulatory frameworks, and ensuring equitable and sustainable financial models are essential. Addressing these challenges enhances the chances of success and better serves the communities these projects aim to support.

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Methodology

This study employs a comparative case study approach to analyze four unsuccessful unsolicited PPP water projects, focusing on financial feasibility, governance and regulatory challenges, and public reception. Financial feasibility is critical, as many projects struggle to secure adequate funding and impose high tariffs, leading to public dissatisfaction and failure (Fu et al., 2022; Boyer & Scheller, 2017). Often, financial models do not consider the economic realities local communities face, resulting in unsustainable service delivery (Fuentes et al., 2021).

Governance and regulatory challenges significantly impact project success. Weak governance can lead to mismanagement, while regulatory barriers hinder collaboration between public and private entities (Ambarsari et al., 2021; Nie et al., 2021). The absence of robust legal frameworks creates uncertainty for investors, deterring participation (Auliya, 2023).

Public reception and social impact are equally important; community engagement is vital for acceptance and success. A lack of stakeholder involvement can lead to resistance and protests, eroding public trust due to perceived inequities and lack of transparency (Zulu, 2023; Akomea-Frimpong et al., 2020). Understanding these dynamics is crucial for improving future unsolicited water PPP projects, ensuring they meet community needs while maintaining financial viability and effective governance.

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Case Study 1 : The Djuanda Jatiluhur II PPP SPAM Project Indonesia

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The Djuanda Jatiluhur II PPP SPAM The project in Indonesia extracts and processes resources, treats, and supplies water to approximately 507,000 consumer accounts, benefiting over 2.6 million people across five regions, including DKI Jakarta, Bekasi City, Bekasi Regency, Karawang Regency, and Bogor Regency. The project's primary objective is to provide a reliable and sustainable water supply, enhancing the quality of life for residents in these rapidly growing areas.

Project Scope and Capacity

The project encompasses the construction of intake facilities, raw water transmission pipes, treatment installations, reservoirs, and a distribution network under a build-operate-transfer model. It aims to ensure continuous water supply from the Jatiluhur Dam, West Java, under the Initiator RANHILL Consortium. Specific targets include:

• Kabupaten Bekasi: Increase clean water service coverage by 7.8%.
• Kota Bekasi: Enhance water service coverage by 19.6%.
• Kabupaten Bogor: Boost coverage by 5.6%.
• DKI Jakarta: Initially planned to cover an additional 2.2% before withdrawing as an off-taker.

The estimated total project cost is USD 955.278 million, with a 30-year concession period, including a 3-year construction phase. However, financial challenges arose due to proposed tariffs exceeding off-taker capacities and inadequate financial backing from the consortium.

Challenges Faced

1. Regulatory Issues: Compliance Failures: The project's non-compliance with regional SPAM provisions, particularly after DKI Jakarta withdrew, resulted in its classification under West Java Province instead of the Central Government. Presidential Regulation Hurdles: ?Officials did not approve the initiative because the consortium offered water at a price that exceeded acceptable limits.
2. Financial Constraints: High Water Tariff: Proposed tariffs were deemed unaffordable, significantly reducing the project's Internal Rate of Return (IRR). Inadequate Financial Capacity: The consortium failed to meet financial capability criteria, with a net worth far below the required amount.
3. Technical Feasibility: Impact of Off-taker Withdrawal: DKI Jakarta's withdrawal eliminated 50% of projected water demand, compromising system efficiency. Distribution Challenges: The absence of DKI Jakarta led to inefficiencies and increased costs in the distribution network.

Crucial Challenges

The most pressing issues were financial constraints and regulatory compliance failures. The high water tariff and insufficient financial backing were significant barriers, while regulatory non-compliance complicated the project's feasibility. These challenges underscore the necessity of aligning project costs with off-taker capabilities, ensuring adequate financial capacity, and adhering to regulatory requirements.

Lessons Learned

1. Secure Off-taker Commitments Early: Engage potential off-takers early to secure commitments and understand their needs.
2. Align Water Tariffs with Affordability: Conduct market research to set tariffs within the affordability range of off-takers.
3. Ensure Financial Capability of Private Partners: Rigorously assess the financial health of private partners before project initiation.
4. Strengthen Regulatory Compliance Mechanisms: Develop a robust framework for regulatory compliance and engage with authorities early to address potential issues.

By addressing these lessons, future unsolicited water PPP projects can enhance their viability and better serve community needs.

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Case Study 2 : the Cochabamba Water Privatization Case (Bolivia)

The Cochabamba Water Privatization case in Bolivia exemplifies the challenges and risks associated with Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) in the water sector. The initiative aimed to enhance water infrastructure and expand service coverage in Cochabamba, the country's fourth-largest city.

Objectives and Concession

The project's primary goal was to improve water infrastructure and extend service coverage, ensuring better accessibility and quality for residents. In pursuit of this objective, the Bolivian government awarded a 30-year concession to Aguas del Tunari, a consortium led by Bechtel, as part of broader economic reforms promoted by international financial institutions.

Challenges Faced

Despite its ambitious aims, the project encountered significant challenges that led to its failure:

• Public Opposition: Following the contract's implementation, water tariffs increased dramatically, placing a heavy financial burden on residents, particularly low-income households. It led to widespread protests and civil unrest, known as the "Cochabamba Water War," where citizens demanded government intervention.
• Lack of Transparency: The concession was awarded without meaningful public consultation, resulting in a lack of awareness about the contract's terms and potential costs. This secrecy fostered mistrust between the government, the private sector, and the public.
• Legal Issues: The protests escalated into violent confrontations, prompting the Bolivian government to cancel the contract. This decision led to legal disputes, with Bechtel initially suing the government for damages before withdrawing the case.

Lessons Learned

The Cochabamba case offers critical lessons for future water infrastructure projects:

1. Public Engagement is Critical: Involving the community in decision-making processes is essential for gaining support and preventing resistance.
2. Tariff Regulations Must Be Transparent: Sudden price hikes can provoke public outrage; thus, Authorities should gradually communicate and introduce tariff adjustments.
3. PPP Contracts Should Be Publicly Accessible: Transparency in contract terms fosters trust and accountability, allowing stakeholders to assess the public interest.

Overall, the Cochabamba Water Privatization case underscores the importance of public involvement, transparent pricing, and accessible contracts in ensuring the success of water infrastructure projects.

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Case Study 3:? The Jakarta Water Concession Case ( Indonesia)

The Jakarta Water Concession case in Indonesia exemplifies the complexities and challenges of privatizing water supply through Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs). The initiative aimed to improve the efficiency of water supply services in Jakarta, the capital, which has long struggled with water access and quality issues.

Objectives and Concession Holders

The primary goal of the Jakarta Water Concession was to privatize the water supply to enhance operational efficiency and service delivery. The government awarded the concession to two private companies, Palyja (Suez Group) and Aetra (Thames Water), responsible for managing water supply in significant portions of the city.

Challenges Faced

Despite its ambitious objectives, the project encountered several significant challenges:

• Profit-Driven Approach: The focus on maximizing profits led to insufficient investment in essential infrastructure improvements. This profit-centric model resulted in inadequate service delivery, as private operators prioritized financial returns over community needs.
• High Water Tariffs: The privatization increased water tariffs, imposing a financial burden on consumers. To mitigate the impact on low-income households, the government provided subsidies. However, this approach proved unsustainable and sparked public outcry against the privatized services.

Lessons Learned

The Jakarta Water Concession case offers important lessons for future water infrastructure projects involving private sector participation:

1. Balance Profit with Public Service: PPP frameworks must ensure that profit motives do not overshadow the primary goal of providing essential public services. A balanced approach prioritizing both profitability and community welfare is crucial for sustainability.
2. Essential Government Oversight: Effective oversight is necessary to monitor the performance of private operators and ensure compliance with service standards. Strong regulatory frameworks can mitigate risks associated with privatization and protect consumer interests.
3. Clear Exit Clauses in Contracts: Including clear exit clauses in PPP contracts can provide a framework for addressing performance issues and facilitate smoother transitions if contracts need to be terminated, preventing protracted legal disputes.

The Jakarta Water Concession case highlights the potential pitfalls of prioritizing profit over public service needs in water supply privatization. To foster prosperous and sustainable water infrastructure projects, policymakers and investors must prioritize community welfare, implement robust oversight, and ensure explicit contractual provisions.

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Case Study? 4 :? ?Cape Town Desalination PPP Case (South Africa)

The Cape Town Desalination Public-Private Partnership (PPP) case illustrates the challenges of addressing water scarcity through privatized solutions. This initiative aimed to provide a reliable source of desalinated water to mitigate the severe water crisis that peaked in 2018 when the city faced the alarming prospect of "Day Zero," where it could run out of water.

Objectives and Concession Holders

The primary goal was to supplement Cape Town's dwindling water supply during extreme drought conditions. The project involved private sector partners responsible for constructing and operating desalination plants to meet the urgent needs of residents.

Challenges Faced

Despite its critical objectives, the Cape Town Desalination PPP encountered several significant challenges:

• High Costs: The proposed desalination solution was considerably more expensive than other available water sources, raising concerns about its financial sustainability. It made it challenging for the government to justify the investment amid limited public funds.
• Regulatory Delays: Environmental concerns regarding the impact of desalination on marine ecosystems led to regulatory delays in project approval. The lengthy approval process created uncertainty and hindered timely implementation, worsening the water crisis.
• Government Rejection: Ultimately, Cape Town authorities chose alternative water management strategies, such as demand management and groundwater extraction, rather than proceeding with the desalination project. This decision highlighted a misalignment between government and private sector objectives.

Lessons Learned

The Cape Town case offers crucial lessons for future water infrastructure projects:

1. Demonstrate Cost-Effectiveness: Proposed solutions must clearly show cost-effectiveness compared to existing alternatives to gain government support.
2. Comprehensive Environmental Assessments: Thorough assessments of environmental impacts are essential to avoid regulatory delays and foster community support.
3. Ensure Government Alignment: Aligning government objectives with private sector proposals before project initiation can identify potential challenges and facilitate smoother implementation.

Overall, the Cape Town Desalination PPP underscores the importance of cost-effectiveness, environmental considerations, and alignment of interests in successfully managing water scarcity challenges.

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Discussion on Unsuccessful Water Sector PPPs

Key Reasons for Failure

The analysis of various unsuccessful unsolicited Public-Private Partnership (PPP) projects in the water sector reveals several key reasons for their failure:

a. Public Resistance to High Tariffs and Privatization: In instances like the Cochabamba Water Privatization, the imposition of high tariffs sparked widespread protests. Citizens perceived privatization as threatening their access to essential water resources, leading to a significant backlash against government and private operators (Tariq & Zhang, 2021; Nickson & Vargas, 2002; Israel, 2007).

b. Weak Governance and Lack of Transparency: Many projects suffered from inadequate governance structures and transparency issues. The Jakarta Water Concession, for example, faced criticism for opaque contractual agreements, which fueled public distrust and dissatisfaction (Nickson & Vargas, 2002). The absence of clear regulatory frameworks often resulted in mismanagement.

c. Financial Infeasibility: Numerous projects encountered financial challenges where proposed solutions were not viable. The Cape Town Desalination PPP was deemed too costly compared to alternative sources, prompting authorities to favour more sustainable strategies.

d. Regulatory Challenges: Regulatory hurdles, particularly regarding environmental impacts, delayed project approvals. In Cape Town, concerns about the environmental effects of desalination processes complicated implementation and ultimately led to project rejection.

e. Lack of Stakeholder Engagement: Insufficient engagement with local communities during project design contributed to resistance. Effective public involvement is crucial for aligning projects with community needs, as evidenced by protests in Cochabamba and Jakarta (Tariq & Zhang, 2021; Pierce, 2014).

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Future Research Areas

Future studies should focus on improving the success rates of water sector PPPs:

1. Identifying Best Practices: Investigating successful unsolicited PPP projects can provide insights into practical strategies that can inform better project design and implementation (Tariq & Zhang, 2021).
2. Evaluating Financial Models: Researching innovative financial models that ensure sustainability and affordability in water projects is essential. it includes exploring alternative funding mechanisms to alleviate consumers' financial burdens (Nickson & Vargas, 2002; Pierce, 2014).
3. Community-Driven Alternatives: Investigating community-driven water management models may offer viable solutions prioritizing public welfare over profit, highlighting effective alternatives to privatization (Nickson & Vargas, 2002; Razavi, 2019).

The failures of unsolicited water PPP projects underscore the importance of addressing public concerns, ensuring transparency, and fostering stakeholder engagement. Future research should focus on identifying best practices, developing sustainable financial models, and exploring community-driven alternatives to enhance the effectiveness of water management initiatives.

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Conclusion

The four case studies—SPAM Djjuanda II in Indonesia, Cochabamba Water Privatization in Bolivia, Jakarta Water Concession in Indonesia, and Cape Town Desalination PPP in South Africa—underscore the complexities and challenges associated with unsolicited Public-Private Partnership (PPP) projects in the water sector. These projects often encounter financial, regulatory, and social hurdles that can lead to failure. Future PPP projects should adopt several key strategies to enhance their success:

1. Engage Stakeholders Early: Meaningful engagement with local communities is essential for fostering trust and support. Involving citizens in decision-making aligns project objectives with community needs and mitigates resistance (Tariq & Zhang, 2021; Nickson & Vargas, 2002).
2. Ensure Transparent Governance: Transparency in governance and accountability mechanisms is crucial for building public trust. Clear communication regarding project terms and pricing structures alleviates concerns and enhances cooperation between public and private entities (Nickson & Vargas, 2002; Israel, 2007).
3. Develop Financially Viable Models: Financial sustainability is critical for the success of water PPPs. Future projects must create funding models considering consumers' economic realities, ensuring affordability while attracting necessary investments (Pierce, 2014; Razavi, 2019).
4. Work Within Regulatory Frameworks: Engaging with regulatory bodies early in project design can help identify potential hurdles and streamline the approval process, ensuring efficient project execution (Elhajaji et al., 2014).
5. Implement Risk-Sharing Mechanisms: Establishing precise risk-sharing arrangements fosters collaboration and enhances the resilience of water infrastructure projects (Weingart & Meyer, 2021).

By addressing these issues, governments and private sector actors can improve the effectiveness of PPPs in delivering essential water infrastructure and avoid repeating past failures. Future research should identify best practices and evaluate community-driven alternatives to large-scale private water concessions, contributing to sustainable and equitable water management solutions.

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The failures of unsolicited water PPPs in Bolivia, South Africa, and Indonesia underscore a harsh reality: without transparency, financial sustainability, and public trust, privatization can deepen inequalities rather than solve water crises. Learning from these missteps is crucial. Future water projects must prioritize people over profits, ensuring water remains a fundamental right—not just a commodity.

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