To what extent could innovative designs and policies be used to reduce micro-plastics in the oceans?
Aims and intentions
The aim of this investigation is to explore the extent to which innovative designs and policies, both on a global and local scale, could be used to reduce micro-plastics in the oceans.
Research
Most of the research on ocean plastic has been conducted over the last 10 years, therefore the majority of sources of information are available online or in newspaper articles. As a result, most of my research has been internet based.
I was initially drawn to the topic through what was then snippets of information on social media. As I started to research the topic in more depth I discussed it with my family and friends. This led to a contact in New Zealand who was directly involved in collecting data for an organisation involved with ocean plastics. Through email correspondence with this contact and further internet research I found a wealth of information that provided me with the foundation for this project.
Work explored
· What micro-plastics are and where they come from?
· How they are getting into our oceans?
· The importance of dealing with micro-plastics
· Local-level innovative solutions
· Global-level innovative solutions
· World Unity to solve a global problem
Summary of my findings
Micro-plastics have been around for years in the form of micro-beads and tiny broken-down pieces of plastic. The effects that they have on human and marine health have become clearer in recent years due to scientific studies and reports. It has been proven that large numbers of marine animals have been ingesting micro-plastics and in so doing, they have become a part of our food chain. Increasingly, the media have been highlighting the extent of the problem that we face. Some simple solutions have already been used both on a local and a global scale such as picking plastic off beaches, however, my findings suggest that innovative solutions (in the testing stages such as the ocean cleanup’s floating barrier) could be an essential aspect to clearing plastics both at source and within our oceans if we are to manage this problem.
Introduction
Plastics of all forms, including micro-plastics have been accumulating within our oceans. In principal, this comes down to the tragedy of the commons. No one has ownership of the oceans and therefore anyone can use it as a dumping zone. News headlines, social media and science articles all point to the clear evidence of the effects that ocean plastics are having, many of which I shall discuss. This investigation will highlight the main sources of plastic, in particular river input. With evidence showing something needs to happen, this investigation will explore the extent to which innovative solutions can be used both on a local scale and on a global scale to counter-act this new problem that society faces.
A brief history of plastics
Plastic dates back many centuries. Initially made from plants and animals, early products such as cutlery handles, buttons and even bombs were created which can now be seen in the Science Museum in London. Plastic as we know it today, however, didn’t properly originate until 1907 when the first synthetic plastic, Bakelite, was developed by Leo Baekeland using fossil fuels. His work opened doors for the development of polystyrene in 1929, polyester in 1930, polyvinylchloride and polythene in 1933 and finally nylon in 1935. Initially these products were not widely used, however, the war changed this as plastics were used in military vehicles and radar insulation technology. After the war, petrochemical companies looked for new opportunities in the civilian market. In 1948 the Tupperware was created – a product which appealed to consumers due to its durability; replacing glass and ceramics that were easily breakable. Since then hundreds of types of plastic have been developed including polycarbonate that is used for plastic water bottles (Knight, 2014).
What are micro-plastics and where do they come from?
Micro-plastics are defined as small pieces of plastic up to 5mm in diameter originating from tiny plastic beads, granules, fibres and fragments. Researchers estimate that micro-plastics first started to appear in personal care products around 1965 in the form of microbeads (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2017). Since then manufacturers have found uses for microbeads in scrubs, facial cleansing, showering and skincare products due to their exfoliating properties. Initially the main market for microbeads was in More Income Developed Countries (MIDCs), so products were particularly made and sold in more developed countries where people could afford such products. However, in more recent years as the standard of living has increased in Economically Developing Countries (EDCs), these products have become more widely available, for example in China. In spite of this, the most popular skin care products are still being sold in MIDCs with products made in the United States, Japan, France and the United Kingdom (Workman, 2017).
Micro-plastics can also come from the decomposition of larger plastics such as plastic bags or water bottles. Figure 1 below shows a map from 2014 showing the global distribution in the production of plastic. (Knight, 2014)
Most plastic production is in Asia, with China being the highest producer. This may be due to the significantly high demand for plastic in China for domestic consumption and exporting. After Asia, Europe and North America are the highest producers of plastic (Plastics Europe, 2016). In Europe, the highest demand for plastic in 2014 was for packaging (39.9%). Other uses included building & construction, automotive, electrical and agriculture. In China, one reason for the significant production and demand for plastic may be due to the export-led growth that China has undertaken. Another reason is that businesses from MIDCs set up plants in China and other Asian countries that produced plastic, making use of cheap labour and raw materials, which could then be exported to Advanced Countries (ACs) for a higher profit.
How are micro-plastics getting into the oceans?
Due to the microscopic size of microbeads, these types of micro-plastics simply flow with the waste water from households, and will eventually end up in rivers that will often take the microbeads out towards the ocean.
Larger plastics left out in open ground will often get washed out into the oceans either through drains or being washed into rivers. This is particularly the case in Asian countries, where the cultural norm is to leave plastic waste out on the streets. Coastal towns and fishermen can also contribute to plastic waste, when incorrect disposal means plastic waste is either left on beaches or in the oceans. Within a year of the plastic waste entering the water, the plastic starts to degrade and will eventually form micro-plastics (Cleanup, 2017). How long the plastic actually takes to break down in the ocean into micro-plastics is not fully known due to hundreds of different types of plastics which have been developed into a range of different products. Ocean temperatures and ultra violet light also have an impact on the speed of decomposition, so where the plastic enters the ocean and where it subsequently travels to will both be determining factors.
The organisation “Nature” created a world map (Figure 2) showing the distribution of plastic emissions through rivers using measurements of waste management, population density and hydrological information. As most plastic entering the oceans comes from rivers, the map is useful in providing data for the sources of plastic emissions, as either microbeads or as larger plastics which are known to biodegrade in the future into micro-plastics. The white dots on the map represent the quantity of plastic emissions. (Lebreton, 2017)
From the map, we can see clear differences in the spatial distribution of plastic discharged by rivers. The greatest area for plastic emissions is Asia, where an estimated 86% of the world’s plastic emissions from rivers comes from. We can see from the map that particular countries including China, India and Indonesia all have a considerably higher proportion of plastic emissions than other countries around the world. This relates to Figure 1 which showed that China and other Asian countries had the highest plastic production. If we look at the overall global plastic emissions from rivers, it is evident that Low Income Developing Countries (LIDCs) and EDCs are greater contributors than ACs, with countries in Asia, Africa and South America having the greatest plastic input. There also appears to be a higher proportion of plastic emissions along the equator. Countries to the north of South America, West Africa and southern Asia and Indonesia all have relatively higher levels of plastic emissions. This could coincide with the levels of development, where these countries are less developed and thus the structure of the recycling and waste management schemes are not as advanced and well-made as those in ACs where there are better resources for focusing on these areas. Governments in EDCs may be reluctant to limit plastic production as it may impact on the countries’ growth.
What happens to the plastic once it is in the oceans?
As the oceans have never been measured for plastic quantity until now, it is challenging to know just how much plastic there is in the ocean, and where it accumulates. Studies suggest that the plastic is drawn by ocean currents into 5 “Gyres”. The plastic is then said to circulate within the ocean Gyres, slowly degrading. Below is a map showing the ocean currents that are said to be affecting the movement and distribution of plastic. In the northern hemisphere there are the North Pacific and the North Atlantic Gyres and in the southern hemisphere there are the South Pacific, South Atlantic and Indian Ocean Gyres. (Pidwirny, 2007)
Henderson Island: Case Study
Henderson Island is one of the most remote islands in the world, located in the South Pacific Ocean, half way between New Zealand and Chile. It is a part of the UK’s Pitcairn island group, with a size of 3,700 hectares. According to a scientific investigation in February 2017, the island is estimated to have the greatest density of plastic waste in the world. The results of the investigation estimate that between 37.7 and 38 million pieces of plastic were found on the island, accounting for an estimated 17.6 tonnes (Hunt, 2017), which equates to only 1.98 seconds of global plastic production! The scientists also discovered that approximately 68% of the plastic was buried under the sand and not visible; in some places 4,500 pieces of plastic were found per square metre (Parker, 2017). The location of Henderson Island plays an important factor in determining why there is so much plastic that has ended up there. Looking back at the map of the world showing the ocean currents, Henderson Island is located directly in the centre of the Southern Pacific currents. This demonstrates the impact that the ocean currents have on the build-up of plastic and backs up evidence suggesting that there are garbage patches within the oceans.
Why is it important to deal with micro-plastics?
The detrimental effects of plastics are said to cost the world economy an estimated $13 billion, significantly affecting fishing industries, coastal businesses, marine life and tourism. However, the more important factor, and what all scientific investigations and global research points to, is the harmful effects that micro-plastics have to the environment and health: both marine and human health.
Marine Health:
The plastic that breaks down into micro-plastics can release potentially toxic chemicals: bisphenol A and PS oligomer. These chemicals can either be released whilst the plastics are drifting in the oceans, or inside marine animals which have mistakenly eaten the plastic. Marine animals affected can range from small fish to larger whales. The fish mistake the bright colours of plastic for food, whilst the larger whales just simply open their mouths to ingest what is in front of them. Further to this, the larger plastics that have not broken down yet, which are said to constitute 97% of plastic waste (The Ocean Cleanup), can also pose a potential danger to marine life, for example the entanglement of nets. Once consumed, as well as releasing potentially dangerous chemicals, the micro-plastic may also block essential airways and systems within the wildlife, affecting individuals and whole food chains. In January 2016, 29 sperm whales were found stranded on shores around the North Sea. The whales were discovered to be full of plastic. Some of the plastic items found in the stomach included: a 13-metre long fishing net and a 70cm piece of plastic from a car (The Guardian, 2016). With plastic widespread, scientists now estimate that 90% of all birds have plastic inside them. This can be particularly harmful to chicks, who are fed small pieces of plastic by parents, who mistake the plastic for food. The parents will also be feeding the chicks fish that have consumed plastic. Passing plastic up the food chain can lead to an increase in concentration of harmful chemicals.
Human Health:
Once in food chains, plastic and the chemicals released from plastic can enter human food systems. At worst, the contamination may cause cancer, foetus malformation and impaired reproductive ability (Tellez, 2014) . These effects may be worst felt by arctic tribes who are dependent on the marine life as a source of food.
Below are the effects of some of the most commonly used plastics on human health
Polyvinylchloride, polycarbonate and polystyrene are just three examples of plastics that are used on a day-to-day basis. The effects of these plastics can be fatal. The extent to which these will affect people will depend on where people are living. For example, people living in locations that have relatively plastic free water are far less likely to experience these effects than people living close to the areas of extreme plastic ocean waste. It will also be dependent on the diet of people. Those living in coastal regions, whose diet is more marine based, could be at a greater risk than those living in non-coastal regions. However, globalisation means that fish and other marine life are being transported for consumption in non-coastal areas.
What can be done?
Widespread awareness has increased dramatically over the last five years, in particular with the input from social media, documentaries and news coverage. David Attenborough’s Blue Planet II series, which raised the issue of ocean plastic, was reported as being “so popular it slowed down the internet in China”. (Independent, 2017) This level of public awareness certainly provides support to the multiple governments, organisations and individuals who are looking for effective solutions, many of which are still to be implemented.
Personally, from the research I have done, I look towards innovative approaches for solutions. For the purposes of this report I have investigated a number of different solutions, some of which I believe to be more innovative than others. I have then compared the different approaches and graded them according to level of innovation, present success and potential future success.
Introduction to innovation
From my research, I believe that future success could come through innovative designs and policies. There has been a particular growth in funding for new ideas that could have a significant impact in the reduction of plastics and micro-plastics. The innovative approach can be used for both reduction of plastics at source and also clearing the micro-plastics from the oceans. These solutions may come through individuals, groups/organisations and governments.
What makes a solution innovative?
The idea or concept of innovation involves coming up with a new product, design or idea which may be advanced, original or creative. It is difficult to define in this scenario what is and what isn’t an innovative solution. To me it is something that has not been done in the past and has the potential to provide a solution to an element of the problem at hand. For example, I wouldn’t necessary describe a tax on plastic production as an innovative solution as taxing negative goods and services has been used frequently in the past. However, a concept or idea that utilises new technology or provides an alternative solution to what there already is, could be regarded as innovative.
What is the UK doing about the problem?
The UK is one of the leading countries in the fight against waste plastic, micro-plastics and in promoting recycling. In 2017, according to Greenpeace UK, the proposed ban on microbeads will be the “strongest in the world” (Johnston, 2017). In 2015 the UK successfully introduced the mandatory 5p plastic bag charge, which reduced plastic bag use by 83%. To what extent does the UK use innovative approaches? With a ￡550,000 “innovation fund”, companies and individuals in the UK certainly have the incentive to search for solutions through innovation.
Innovation: High
One route that the UK is taking to use innovative strategies to reuse plastic is in using plastic for roads. In Southern Scotland, the first trial was done in October 2017 as a test for future works. The plastic waste used is said to be 60% stronger than the current material used. The idea came about by a company which won the Virgin Media Business VOOM start-up business award. Although this approach is new and we cannot yet ascertain whether it has been successful, the results so far are promising, and if tested positively could be of significant benefit to future recycling systems in the UK. This approach would not only provide a source for recycled plastic, but could also improve the roads. This could mean that other countries adopt a similar approach which could benefit worldwide plastic recycling (BBC, 2017). I was unable to establish the environmental safety of this project, possibly because the trials are still underway. Questions in my mind include: might there be a chemical effluent from plastic roads which could enter water courses? Might micro-plastics be rubbed off on vehicle tyres and transported elsewhere? In our desire to find solutions we must be careful not to overlook possible negatives. We need to be sure that we are not simply kicking the can down the road and creating the same problem in a different way.
Innovation: Medium
Another innovative strategy which the UK government is considering is a “reward and return” scheme for plastic bottles to encourage and incentivise recycling. The need for a strategy such as this is clear in the UK as 43% of the UK’s plastic bottles are not recycled (BBC, 2017). Although this solution has been used by other countries, it is still very much a new solution and the idea only came about a few years ago. If people can receive money for recycling then they are more likely to do it.
However, what happens to all these plastic bottles once they are recycled? Until now much of the UK’s recyclable material has been exported to China but very recently the Chinese have put a ban on plastic waste imports which, according to the Guardian “will hit UK recycling efforts and risk plastic waste being stockpiled or ending up in landfill” (The Guardian, 2017). The bottom line is that consumers need to consume less. However, less consumption has a negative impact on the economy. The government is well aware of this, possibly accounting in part for the desire to encourage innovative solutions to find alternatives to our status quo.
Innovation: Low
A perhaps lesser innovative approach is by an organisation called Surfers Against Sewage, which has been set up to clear waste (including plastic) from the UK beaches. The Organisation is funded by donations. 84 beaches have already been visited and cleaned with the involvement of over 6,200 individuals. In total, so far 13 tonnes of marine plastic pollution have been removed from the beaches. However, as we know already, the plastic just keeps on replacing itself on beaches due to the sheer amount that is already in the seas and oceans (Surfers Against Sewage, 2017). This approach is successful in providing funding for education which is essential for the reduction of plastic in the future. It has also proven successful through the 13 tonnes of marine plastic pollution already removed from beaches. However, it requires some substantial funding and many volunteers. It will also only work short term unless the programme can be sustained financially in the long term, and will not reduce the amount of plastic in the oceans.
With the three examples of strategies used, I have created a table considering my own view of its current success and future success based on what I know about the solution:
From the three example strategies being used, the low innovation strategy was the only one already in place. However, the potential for future success did seem to be greater for the higher innovation than the lower innovation solutions, but until the innovative strategies are actually in place the hands on, low level initiatives are the only ones making a difference.
Possible global innovative solutions
Innovation: High
The sea bin was invented by two Australian surfers: Andrew Turton and Pete Ceglinski (The Sea Bin, 2017). It works in a similar way to a normal bin, except that it floats in water and has a small motor for drawing in plastic and other rubbish. It can be simply installed in the water of marinas, ports, yacht clubs and any location where the water is calm. A small water pump operates underneath the sea bin which can run off solar power. Once the sea bin is set up, it is estimated to catch around 1.5kgs of floating debris each day. This equates to half a ton of debris each year for every sea bin. On the 6th of November 2017, the sea bins were launched and made available for anyone to use, with a factory in France set to produce 360 bins every month. Although, with prices at ￡3,000 per bin, take-up may be limited. It is hardly surprising that during an intensive 3-week accelerator programme in Amsterdam, out of 700 applicants, the sea bin was awarded the second highest funding of ￡350,000 and was selected for the People’s Choice Award. This shows the extent of public interest and optimism for success. The sea bin is certainly a strong example for the way that innovation can be used successfully and it will be interesting to see the results of the widespread marketing of the sea bin. Its success worldwide could depend on if people are willing to spend ￡3,000 on the sea bin – a particularly large investment in LIDCs. However, areas that rely heavily on tourism may consider ￡3000 a small price to pay to maintain the natural beauty of an area.
Innovation: High
The Ocean Cleanup is an organisation involved in the clean-up of ocean plastics. With a combination of innovative designs and the latest technology they have undergone multiple prototypes to finally create a fleet of floating barriers, each 100m long and with the design seen in figure 4.
How it works: The 100m long barrier will drift with the ocean currents, however at a slower speed than the plastic which it traps. This is due to sea anchors attached to either end of the barrier at a depth of 600m which act as a drag. The speed of the ocean currents decreases with depth, meaning that the anchor will drift at a far slower speed, thus reducing the movement of the floating barrier.
Due to the novelty of this innovative design, prototypes have been essential. It is expected that in May 2018 the first of these floating barriers will be launched. If the floating barriers work as expected, they could clear 50% of the Great Pacific Garbage Patch in just 5 years. Although we cannot gauge the success of this innovative project as it is yet to be launched, funding has been provided by governments and businesses worldwide showing that many people believe in this as a good solution. The bigger issue is perhaps dealing with all the plastic waste collected (The Ocean Cleanup, 2017).
Innovation: Low
Placing a ban on plastic bags, or taxing them has been a solution used globally. As far as the western society is concerned, there has been a “somewhat receptive” change in behaviour (World Policy, 2014). In Italy, there was a plastic bag ban in 2011 and France recently followed suit. Other European countries have placed a tax on plastic bags that has shown promising results. These countries include: Belgium, Denmark, the United Kingdom, Finland, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Ireland has seen incredible results with the tax on plastic bags, decreasing usage by 95%. However, Africa has shown better development at ridding the continent of plastic bags. African countries have been finding ways to replace plastic bags with more sustainable, environmentally friendly substitutes. Part of the reason for Africa’s decision on this is due to the effect plastic bags have had on their local livestock and wildlife as well as issues with clogging drains that later serve as a birth point for malaria-carrying mosquitos. Out of the 55 recognised regions in Africa, 22 have either placed a ban on plastic bags or a partial ban/tax.
In Europe there are still significant efforts being made to reduce the number of plastic bags used. The EU aims to have a 50% reduction in plastic bags by 2019 from the levels in 2010. By 2025 the target increases to 80%. However, many member states have not been meeting the target and some have been making no effort whatsoever. “Zerowasteeurope” suggests that it is far better if countries ban plastic bags than placing a tax on them (Zero Waste Europe, 2016). Although the policy could be considered innovative by some, to me it is less innovative than the other approaches. Its success, however, has been remarkably high with a significant reduction in the number of plastic bags used, which shows that people didn’t really need them in the first place! However, plastic bags are only a small part of total plastic usage in society and less has been done in reducing other types.
Similar to the local strategies, I have created a table showing my view on the current and future success of the strategies discussed.
Looking at innovative strategies on a global scale, a similar pattern can be seen to the local solution discussed earlier: the low innovation strategy is successful now, but the high innovation strategies look to have a greater potential in the future. Both high innovation strategies show positive possibilities for the future, particularly the floating barrier. The reason for the decline of future success of the ban of plastic bags is that in most countries the ban or tax of plastic bags is already in place and further incentives are likely to show only a marginal improvement.
World unity to solve a global problem
As no one has ownership of the oceans, the problem of plastics and micro-plastics in the ocean becomes a shared problem. Anyone can contribute, and anyone can suffer. Therefore, arguably there is a requirement for a global solution to a global problem, in much the same way as the global community addressed the ozone hole in the Antarctic. Very recently, in October 2017, a conference in Malta brought together businesses, countries and organisations. These groups set out what they aimed to achieve in the future years and the funding that would go towards it. The total EU pledge alone amounted to €2.8 billion. This substantial input from European countries shows the desire to find a solution. Below are some of the innovative and lesser innovative solutions proposed by some countries or organisations: (Our Ocean, 2017):
The countries showing the most progress and funding were unsurprisingly the MIDCs, as they have more spending available. However, encouragingly LIDCs were also working towards a solution. For example, Bangladesh aims to reduce plastic production by 60% by 2019.
In terms of the contrast in innovative solutions, we can see from the examples that both innovative approaches and lesser innovative approaches are being used. There is a strong element of research going into looking for improved solutions as seen by the UK funding ￡550,000 towards the “innovation fund”, and the Ellen MacArthur foundation which is still “looking” for the solution to create a circular economy. This suggests perhaps we are on the cutting-edge of making significant advances in technology that could bring about innovative change in the near future.
Innovation – the future to reducing micro-plastics from the oceans?
Having looked at three examples of innovation used on a local scale and three examples of innovation used on a global scale, a clear pattern has emerged that identifies the strong potential for innovation in the future in solving the problem at hand. Low innovation strategies are showing some success right now, however the future success appeared to be higher overall from higher innovation strategies as shown by tables 5 and 6 below.
The potential reasons that the higher innovative strategies are yet to be of success may be due to the cost element. These solutions are no doubt expensive and thus without the adequate funding they cannot be used. Additionally, it may be due to the testing requirement which we have seen with the floating barrier and plastic roads. Therefore, the success can be limited with time.
Conclusion
There are several steps to reducing micro-plastics from the oceans. The removal of large plastics from our oceans before they decompose into micro-plastics is an important aspect to limiting future damage to environmental systems and marine and human health. There is also the importance of finding ways to reuse and recycle existing plastics and limit human consumption to prevent plastics reaching the oceans in the first place. Additionally, there is a need to find alternatives to plastic and/or ways to manage without them. Banning microbeads and single-use plastics is a solution already being implemented in many countries, particularly more developed countries, as an effective strategy. Innovation looks to be a vital element in the future of reducing plastics from reaching the oceans and removing plastic and micro-plastics in our oceans. Multiple simple strategies are already being used by governments and individuals, however, to have a greater lasting impact in the removal of plastics, innovative approaches will play a large part in the future of this, such as the development of the floating barrier and sea bin on a global scale and the testing of plastic in roads on a local level as seen in the United Kingdom. The extent to which these approaches will be truly successful will become clear in years to come, in what could be a very successful worldwide approach to a global problem.
Evaluation
In 10 months, researching ocean plastics in depth has driven my understanding of the topic far beyond the pockets of information that appear on social media. The initial months of research led me to understand the significance of the ocean plastic problem facing each country, and the limited preventions used by governments and organisations. It would have been easy to feel depressed and helpless, however, increasingly I have found new solutions that are catching the attention of governments and a part of society, that could make a significant difference in the future. Ultimately, it was this that led to my essay title of exploring the innovative solutions. I have become attached to the topic, and I always seem to find a way to share my enthusiasm when speaking to others. My research has led me to believe that we are potentially on the cutting-edge of the use of new strategies and approaches that have never been used before. After months and potentially years of media attention about the effects ocean plastics are having, and with the release of David Attenborough’s series of “Blue Planet II”, I believe that society could look towards these new solutions, ultimately driving what could be a monumental change in the reduction and clearing of ocean plastics, the necessity of which is vital at a time when ocean plastics are breaking down into the micro-plastics, having a potentially irreversible consequence on marine and human health.
The hardest part of the project has been to know when to stop as new information and potential innovative strategies are making their way into the news and social media almost on a weekly basis.
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