What is brand personality and how can it be used in the marketing of services or products?

There is evidence for the existence of brands since 2000 BC (O’Neill, 2015). At that time, they were used to signify ownership. Then, brands followed multiple evolutions through the ages to become more sophisticated (O’Neill, 2015). In modern times, a brand refers to a range of attributes such as “a name, term, sign, symbol, design or a combination of these” (Aggarwal, 2017, p. 1060). Consumers use them to recognise and differentiate a product from other brands (Aggarwal, 2017).

?An Inc.com article mentions a Nielsen Media Research report which estimates that there are currently over 500,000 brands worldwide in over 2,000 different product categories (Inc.Com, 2021). In saturated markets, products tend to be rather similar and/or offer comparable benefits (Akin, 2011; Aggarwal, 2017) (e.g., nothing looks more like a bottle of water than a bottle of water from another brand). Consequently, in today's world, brands’ successes cannot solely rely on the attributes of their products (Aggarwal, 2017), and it is more difficult for products to stand out (Akin, 2011). It is in this setting that brand personality finds its essence.

?Personality refers “to the traits and qualities that differentiate an individual from others” (Aggarwal, 2017, p. 1060). Drawing a parallel with the five dimensions of human personality, Aaker (1997) developed the brand personality framework. She provided the first theoretical foundation for brand personality, suggesting that consumers attribute humanlike personalities to brands (Radler, 2017). Since then, numerous studies have demonstrated that consumers tend to relate to brands that share similar personality dimensions as their own (Aggarwal, 2017). It also holds a key role in helping consumers evaluate a product (Alazzawi, 2019), drives consumer preferences (Roy et al., 2016), and increases trust and brand loyalty (Akin, 2011). Thus, having a distinct and unique brand personality is essential to ensure the success of a product/brand (Lin, 2010).

?This essay examines the concept of brand personality, its impact on consumers, and its use for marketers. The first section will be devoted to understanding brand personality and its construction from a theoretical point of view. The second part will explore the influence of the brand personally on consumers as well as practical managerial implications.

?Understanding Brand Personality and Its Construction

From the 1940s, psychologists explored human personality traits (Lim, 2020) to analyse people's behaviour. Today, psychologists accept that personality can be classified according to five stable, robust, and reliable (Ouwersloot & Tudorica, 2001) dimensions. This framework is called the "Big Five", and today the dimensions Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability and Culture proposed by McCrae and Costa in 1986 are now commonly used (Lin, 2010).

?The starting point for brand personality research and theory was the human personality (Louis & Lombart, 2010). The underlying reason is that brand personality implies that consumers perceive brands as having humanlike personality traits (Aaker, 1997). In fact, the brand personality concept is adjacent to the "Big Five" in that Aaker also identified five brand personality dimensions (Figure 1). Thus, Aaker (1997) defines?brand personality?as "the set of human characteristics associated with a brand" (p.347).?

?In her seminal work, Aaker (1997) reveals that consumers perceive brands as having five personality dimensions, namely: Sincerity, Excitement, Competence, Sophistication, and Ruggedness (Aaker, 1997, p.353) and 15 facets (Figure 1). To uncover these five dimensions, Aaker conducted a multi-stage study on 631 American participants who wrote down and rated 37 brands using 114 personality traits. Then a factorial analysis allowed her to determine the five dimensions and 15 facets. Consequently, Aaker developed the first reliable and generalisable scale brand personality (Alazzawi, 2019).

?Furthermore, it is important to note that, while human and brand personalities share the same underlying concept, they are constructed differently (Aaker, 1997). Perceived human personality is based on an “individual’s behaviour, physical characteristics, attitudes and beliefs, and demographic characteristics” (Aaker, 1997, p.348). In contrast, the perception of brand personality is formed or influenced by the contact a consumer can have with a brand (Aaker, 1997).

?Although for measuring brand personality, Aaker’s scale is the most commonly used (Cardoso et al., 2022), it has since been criticised. For example, the initial study that allowed Aaker to create her scale was performed on a US population, which tends to make it not replicable to non-American populations (Cardoso et al., 2022). In fact, due to cultural differences, brand personality seems to vary from country to country according to specific cultural dimensions (Radler, 2017). For instance, the Ruggedness dimension had to be replaced with Peacefulness in Japan and Passion in Spain (Alazzawi, 2019; Kumar, 2018). Also, the original definition of brand personality is not commonly accepted (Radler, 2017), and some authors have found it restrictive (Louis & Lombart, 2010). Therefore, some researchers have proposed alternative definitions, such as Azoulay and Kapferer (2003). They propose that brand personality is a “set of?human personality traits?that are both?applicable to?and?relevant for?brands” (p.151).?In spite of these critiques, it is agreed that human personality traits are transferrable to brand personality (Kumar, 2018).

Regarding the construction of brand personality, it is important to know that a brand is a compilation of perceptions in consumers’ minds (Ouwersloot & Tudorica, 2001). It is argued that the construction of brand personality is possible because people tend to attribute human characteristics to non-living objects (Roy et al., 2016) to help them interact with the intangible world (Ahmad & Thyagaraj, 2015; Louis & Lombart, 2010). This is called animism and anthropomorphism. Animism is defined as conferring life to the non-living (Roy et al., 2016), while anthropomorphism is the concept of attributing human qualities to non-human objects to be more familiar and reduce uncertainty (Guthrie,1993 as cited in Roy et al., 2016; Maehle et al., 2011). Furthermore, Roy and al. (2016) suggest that they are necessary conditions in brand personality construction because the perception of human traits results in the perception of brand personality.

?Finally, Phau and Lau (2000) explain that researchers have identified three concepts that can explain the influence of brand personality on consumers: self-concept, self-congruity and self-expression. Consumers tend to prefer brands that share and reflect their actual or preferred identity (Ahmad & Thyagaraj, 2015). A person can relate to a brand based on the congruence between their identity and the identity attached to the brand (Louis & Lomart, 2010; Ahmad & Thyagaraj, 2015). Furthermore, the greater the congruence between human and brand personalities, the more customers prefer the brand (Aaker, 1997). Finally, it is important to observe that consumers use brands to express their identity (Ahmad & Thyagaraj, 2015). Hence, products are purchased by consumers not only for their characteristics but also for their associated symbolism. (Ahmad & Thyagaraj, 2015).

?Managerial Implications of Brand Personality for Marketers

Over the past decades, researchers have suggested several effects of brand personality on consumers, such as an increase in love, trust and loyalty (e.g., Roy et al., 2016; Louis & Lomart, 2010; Lin, 2010) towards brands. This section will only focus on some examples of the impact of brand personality on consumers and their managerial implications.

?First is the importance of having a brand personality that reflects and is close to the personality of consumers. In their research, Mulyanegara et al. (2009) explored the link between consumer personality, brand personality and its impact on brand preference. The authors conducted a study on 251 Australian students who were asked to complete three questionnaires, including the Big Five personality scale, a fashion-related brand preference scale and demographic questions. They found that consumers prefer fashion brands that reflect their personality (e.g., “extroverts” prefer “social” brands). Their research also revealed a gender difference. Men are more expressive than women in their brand preferences. Practically speaking, marketers need to make sure that their marketing campaigns respond to the consumers' personalities and gender. By positioning their brand according to the personality of their targets and considering the difference between men and women, they can influence brand preference.

?Also, consumers perceive brands as humanlike and prefer those that express a personality close to theirs. Arora et al. (2021) studied the relationship and impact of brand-celebrity personality (celebrity endorsement) on consumers' brand perception and purchase intentions. The study was conducted on 1235 Indian participants who were asked to complete a socio-demographic questionnaire to rate brand and celebrity personalities using the Aaker scale, and their purchase intention was measured. The authors found that consumers view brands as unique and reputable if the celebrity personality matches the brand s/he endorses, which translates into consumer purchase intentions. In other words, the key for marketers is to choose a celebrity that resonates with their brand. This allows consumers to connect with the celebrity's personality and influences brand perception, which positively affects purchase intentions.

?Finally, we will explore the importance of brand personality on consumer behaviour and the effect of design on the perception of brand personality. Boudreaux and Palmer (2007) studied the impact of wine label design on perceived brand personality and how purchase intention is influenced by brand personality. First, they conducted a pilot study to determine wine brand personality using Aaker's framework. Then, via a questionnaire, they asked 386 UC Berkeley (USA) students to judge the personality of fictitious wine labels designed using a combination of colours, fonts, typography and images (Figure 2). They also measured participants' purchase intention.

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?The authors found that all facets of brand personality predicted purchase intent. It is worth noting that facets "Successful" and "Charming" capture 47% of purchase intention. In addition, the image has the strongest effect on the perception of the brand's personality because it functions as a cue to meaning (e.g., an image of the grape for wine). The colour influences how the brands are perceived (e.g., warm palettes were seen as successful). From a practical standpoint, marketers can influence purchase intent through the choice of images and the perception of a brand personality by playing with colours. These are important considerations to be made when creating or repositioning a brand as it influences its perception by consumers.

Although these studies provide valuable results, it is necessary to highlight their common limitations. They were all conducted in different countries, on a single product type and used Aaker's scale. In their review, Ahmad and Thyagara (2013) explained that some cultures have specific personality dimensions that are different from the Aaker scale (e.g., France, Japan, China) and therefore brand personality appears to be not fixed across cultures. In her 1997 study, Aaker also indicated this potential limit across cultures. Similarly, they pointed out that the cross-application of product categories could not be transferred to a different product, which may have an impact on the brand personality dimensions. These are important considerations for marketers. Thus, before developing a brand personality, they need to be aware of different cultures and product categories. Therefore, the generalisation of brand personality should be taken with precaution. By knowing this, marketers will be able to build a brand personality that responds to the preferences and personalities of consumers.

?Conclusion

?In a world where the market is becoming increasingly competitive and where product differences become thinner (e.g., the difference between TVs, water, orange juice, etc.), companies need to differentiate themselves, not on the product features but their personality (Akin, 2011).

?In this context, brand personality is a valuable tool and offers opportunities for brands and managers. It provides insights into how consumers connect with brands and how the brand personality impacts them. It also provides brand managers with key information to differentiate themselves from the competition by creating a preference among consumers that can translate into purchase intent.

Thus, this essay demonstrates that consumers perceive and attribute humanlike personalities to brands. Most importantly, they have a greater attachment to brands whose personality is similar to their own. Furthermore, studies have suggested that brand personality can influence consumer behaviours. As highlighted, brand personality positively influences purchase intention, as well as the attachment of consumers to the brand.

?Yet, as discussed, brand personality appears not always transferable to other products and cultures. Consequently, understanding these limitations is critical from a managerial perspective. Marketers need to know their target audience's culture, demographic differences, and the type of product to create an influential personality to improve sales and market share.

?It would be valuable for future research to examine whether consumer age impacts the perception of brand personality and its effects (purchase, loyalty…). Future research could also investigate if brand personality can be shared between countries considered culturally similar (e.g., Europe), or if products in some categories with similar attributes can share some brand personality traits.

References

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