Water User Associations: How can they be made more effective?

Summary

Over the past forty years, Water User Associations (WUAs) have been promoted by international development organizations through irrigation water management transfer programs in many developing countries to improve water management. However, the establishment of WUAs and improvement of infrastructure alone are not a cure. They have to be supported by an encouraging and enabling context.

This article briefly explores the main elements that need to be considered during the formation of WUAs and the factors that play an important role in determining their sustainable operation, including the role of civil servants and user participation during the formation stage. Key factors affecting the effectiveness of WUAs include community dependence on agriculture, access to alternative water sources, water availability, user characteristics, and the ability of WUAs to impose sanctions.

Furthermore, the sustainable operation of WUAs depends on the benefits accessible to users through their collective organization. Additionally, the ability to engage in profit generating business activities is crucial.

Irrigation Management Transfer and Water User Associations

Water management for irrigation purposes is an ancient activity that invovled the establishment of local organizations based on community tradtions and norms for their operation. It is widely believed that these organizations were sustainable before being disrupted by modernization and state intervention through policies that led to the collapse of the local water management system, such as the introduction of individual mobile diesel pumps.

Over the past forty years, the formation of groups for the management of water resouces has gained increased attention, especially after government efforts to upgrade irrigation infrastructure without involving users led to irrigation failures. International development organizations have taken the lead in promoting these groups - as a means to counter deteriorations and curb unsustainable use of water resources - through what is known as irrigation management transfer programs. These programs aim to either form or strengthen existing organizations to manage irrigation water and encourage water users’ participation.

Water management is unique compared to other natural resources due to its dynamic nature, which complicates control and often requires interdependent usage. Additionally, it relies on physical infrastructure that influences water delivery and the operation of user organizations.

Irrigation management transfer programs aim to devolve irrigation management responsibilities from state agencies to Water User Associations (WUAs) or local NGOs as state agencies often face challenges in effectvely maintaining irrigation systems. The extent of the transfer can vary, with some states retaining certain responsibilities while others transfer all tasks to the users.

This article briefly explores the main elements that need to be considered during the formation of WUAs and the factors that play an important role in determing WUAs sustainable operation.

Formation of Water User Associations

In many developing countries, civil servants often oversee the formation of WUAs, despite their limited capacity, in manpower, funding, and incentives. This often hinders the proper formation of WUAs. Additionally, the lack of consensus on the definition of “irrigation management transfer,” and the differing expectations placed on WUAs between high and local policy levels contribute to the reluctance among public officials to delegate their authority to WUAs resulting in their improper formation. This can sometimes lead to WUAs being nominally formed, with users unaware of their existence.

Therefore, agreement on expected outcomes and training is essential for civil servants. Additionally, it is important to adopt other WUAs formation approaches, such as engaging young community catalysts to support the bottom up establishment of WUAs.

Furthermore, the formation of WUAs should take into account three key elements: 1) the impact of improved irrigation infrastructure on user behavior, 2) the interplay between these new organizations and existing traditional norms, and 3) users’ capacity to exercise their water rights.

Firstly, many irrigation management transfer programs tend to prioritize infrastructure improvements, because they are easier to implement and show quick results – ?but only if properly executed by contractors - compared to the challenging process of synthesizing communities. These improvements usually have social control and collective action effects, influencing certain activities while discouraging others. For example, improvementscould prevent farmers from irrigating without coordinating with the group of irrigators, or they could remove the need for cooperation among farmers due to the use of a new technology (e.g. individual diesel pumps).

Secondly, many irrigation management transfer programs aim to restore or build social capital - to ensure WUAs sustainability - by relying on existing traditional norms/mechanisms for water resource management. However, improvement interventions never deal with static local settings. Instead, they interact with evolving socio-economic and institutional conditions that influence power dynamics and consequently, the likelihood of farmers/ users complying with the rules. This in turn will impact the capacity to undertake collective action and exercise social control, ultimately affecting irrigation water management and the organization of irrigation systems. Therefore, well defined rules and regulations should be formulated and their speedy enforcement should be backed by the government.

Thirdly, water rights are seen to complement any changes in user organization and infrastructure/technology. Water rights – defined in quantity or irrigation duration to enahnce water use efficiency and can allow the trading of rights between users - along with the presence of mechanisms to safeguard these rights are seen as a way to support user organization and infrastructure/ technology sustainability. These rights can ensure that all users have fair and equal access to water, ultimately reducing the manipulative power exercised by influential local people.

Irrigation management transfer programs that do not consider state capacity, infrastructure processes, and community dynamics are unlikely to lead to effective or functioning WUAs.

Functioning of Water User Associations

In many developing countries, states establish formal guidelines for WUAs composition and responsibilities, outlining members' rights and duties. Based on these guidelines, water users elect leadership, agree on decision-making processes, and develop internal regulations. The effectiveness of WUAs hinges on their ability to collect irrigation fees, manage operations and maintenance activities, organize irrigation schedules, and enforce sanctions.

The regular collection of fees from members is a key performance measure for the functioning of WUAs, as it reflects farmers’ satisfaction with the water delivery service and their acceptance of the WUAs management. Fees may be set by the users, other village or state organizations and are used by WUAs to finance operation and maintenance activities. Therefore, non-payment affects the functioning and upkeep of the irrigation infrastructure. In large irrigation systems, water delivery must also be coordinated with regional officials to ensure delivery predictability.

Furthermore, the functioning of WUAs is influenced by five main factors: user reliance on agriculture, access to alternative water sources, water availability, user characteristics, and the ability of WUAs to impose sanctions.

1.??????? Off-farm jobs and migration can reduce reliance on agriculture, affecting farmers' incentives for cooperative behavior. The increased dependence on alternative incomes can be attributed in many countries to land fragmentation and low agricultural returns.

2.??????? Alternative irrigation sources, such as well water, may decrease farmers' willingness to contribute to WUAs activities.

3.??????? Water scarcity and abundance also impact cooperation; conflicts may arise during shortages, while abundance may lead to individualistic water management.

4.??????? Farmers’ heterogeneity, whether in terms of economic status or gender can weaken social cohesion and the enforcement of agreements and sanctions. Wealthier farmers and male farmers often have access to more benefits.

5.??????? The capacity of WUAs to impose sanctions to deter violations can be challenging in large and heterogeneous groups due to less effective monitoring. In the absence of WUAs capacity to effectively enforce sanctions (on violators or on users not paying O&M fees), state intervention for conflict resolution is necessary.

In addition to the above, the sustainable operation of WUAs is believed to depend on the potential benefits that are only accessible to users through their collective organization. These benefits are not only limited to better water management but extend to access to concessional loans, markets and whole sale prices for inputs. Additionally, the ability of WUAs to engage in profit generating business activities is cruical when water management issues become a non-tiresome routine because of the introduced technology.

?Conclusion

In conclusion, the successful management of irrigation through Water User Associations (WUAs) is vital for sustainable agricultural practices and efficient water resource use. While historical models of local management faced disruption from state interventions, contemporary irrigation management transfer programs offer a pathway to restore user participation and local governance. By addressing the unique challenges of WUAs formation — including the interplay of infrastructure improvements, traditional norms, and equitable water rights — users can enhance the effectiveness of these organizations. Ultimately, the long-term viability of WUAs hinges on their ability to adapt to evolving socio-economic conditions, foster cooperation among diverse user groups, and provide meaningful benefits that encourage active engagement in water management. Through these efforts, WUAs can play a crucial role in promoting sustainable irrigation practices and ensuring equitable access to water resources for all users, in additon to enhancing the viability of agricultural production.