The War on Terms of Crimes on the Internet: A Comparative Analysis - Prof K. Jaishankar

Introduction

The digital age has ushered in a new era of criminal activities that exploit the vast and interconnected world of the internet and digital networks. In discussing these criminal activities, various terms are often used interchangeably, including cybercrime, computer crime, online crime, virtual crime, and digital crime. Also, the disciplines that study these crimes have various terminologies like Cyber Criminology, Computational Criminology, Computer Criminology, Virtual Criminology, Digital Criminology, and Human Factor in cybercrime. While these terms share commonalities, they also possess subtle distinctions in meaning and usage. This article aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of each term, examining its definitions, contexts, and implications in the realm of digital criminality.

1. Terminologies of Internet Crimes

1.1. Cybercrime:

"Cybercrime" stands out as a broad and encompassing term that refers to criminal activities carried out in cyberspace. This term has gained widespread acceptance and usage, encapsulating a range of illicit actions, including hacking, identity theft, online fraud, and the spread of malware. The prefix "cyber-" denotes a connection to computers, networks, and digital systems. Cybercrime is characterized by its global nature, often transcending geographical boundaries and posing unique challenges for law enforcement and cybersecurity professionals. The term reflects the evolving landscape of criminal behavior in the digital age. This term is overarching and serves as a collective descriptor for a wide range of criminal activities that leverage computer systems, devices, or networks.

The notable votaries of this term (Cyber crime) are: David Wall, Thomas Holt, K. Jaishankar, Majid Yar, Michael Bachmann, Peter N. Grabosky, Susan W. Brenner, Thomas Holt, and Philip N. Ndubueze.

1.2. Computer Crime:

"Computer crime" is a term that focuses specifically on criminal activities involving computers. While it is sometimes used interchangeably with cybercrime, "computer crime" may have a narrower scope, emphasizing offenses directly targeting or involving computer systems. This term highlights the centrality of computers in criminal activities, encompassing unauthorized access, data breaches, and the manipulation or destruction of digital information. Computer crime underscores the instrumental role of computers as both tools and targets in illicit activities.

The notable votaries of this term (Computer Crime) are: Kevin F. Steinmetz and Donn Parker.

1.3. Online Crime:

The term "online crime" narrows the focus to criminal activities committed over the internet. It highlights the virtual nature of the criminal actions, emphasizing the role of online platforms and communication channels. Online crime includes a diverse array of offenses, such as online fraud, phishing, and cyberbullying. This term underscores the internet as the primary medium through which criminal activities are conducted, reflecting the increasing reliance on online spaces for both legitimate and illicit purposes.

The notable votaries of this term (Online Crime) are: Yvonne Jewkes and Thomas J. Holt.

1.4 Virtual Crime:

"Virtual crime" is a term less commonly used but may find relevance in specific contexts. It refers to criminal activities that occur within virtual environments, such as online gaming platforms or virtual worlds. In these spaces, individuals may engage in activities that mirror real-world criminal behavior, such as theft, fraud, or harassment. The term "virtual crime" highlights the blurred lines between the digital and physical realms, acknowledging that criminal actions can transcend traditional distinctions.

The notable votaries of this term (Virtual Crime) are: Leon Gray, Kai Cornelius and Dieter Hermann

1.5. Digital Crime:

The term "digital crime" is a broad umbrella that encompasses criminal activities facilitated by digital technology. It includes cybercrime, computer crime, online crime, and virtual crime. "Digital crime" emphasizes the role of digital technologies as enablers or tools in the commission of offenses. The term reflects the evolving landscape of criminal behavior in the digital age.

The notable votaries of this term (Digital Crime) are: Taylor Robert W., Anastasia Powell, Gregory Stratton, and Robin Cameron.

2. Comparative Analysis of Terminologies of Internet Crimes:

While these terms share commonalities, their usage often depends on the context and the specific nuances of the criminal activity being discussed. "Cybercrime" and "digital crime" are overarching terms that encompass a broad spectrum of offenses. "Computer crime" narrows the focus to crimes involving computers, emphasizing the centrality of computing technology. "Online crime" emphasizes criminal activities conducted over the internet, reflecting the virtual nature of the offenses. "Virtual crime," though less common, recognizes criminal behavior within virtual environments.

All the terms—cybercrime, computer crime, online crime, virtual crime, and digital crime—are commonly used, but their usage may depend on the context and the specific nature of the criminal activity. However, "cybercrime" is the most widely accepted and commonly used term to refer to criminal activities conducted over the internet or other digital networks. It's a broad term that encompasses a range of criminal activities, including hacking, identity theft, online fraud, and more.

Notably, there is one strong votary against the use of the term, "Cyber Crime". Steinmetz (2023, 2018) expresses reservations about using the term "cybercrime" citing its political, sensationalist, and unclear nature. The debate within criminology regarding the precise definition of "cybercrime" is acknowledged (Steinmetz, 2023, 2018). The prefix "cyber" was once widely applied to various online activities, but it has fallen out of favor, except when describing illicit or malicious actions. He contends that "cyber" adds little analytic clarity and is entrenched in the politics of fear. While acknowledging the conceptual precision of "informated crimes," he opts for the more widely used and less politically charged term "computer crimes" (Steinmetz, 2023, 2018).

"Computer crime" and "digital crime" are often used interchangeably with cybercrime, but they might be seen as slightly more specific, focusing on criminal activities involving computers or digital devices. "Online crime" specifically refers to crimes committed over the internet. "Virtual crime" is less common and might be used in specific contexts, referring to crimes that occur in virtual environments, such as online gaming platforms.

The interchangeable use of these terms has implications for legal frameworks, law enforcement strategies, and public understanding. Clarity in terminology is crucial for effective communication, policy development, and the prosecution of offenders. The terminology surrounding digital crime reflects the dynamic and multifaceted nature of criminal activities in the digital age. While all these terms can be used, I strongly believe that "cybercrime" is the most widely accepted and encompasses a broad range of criminal activities in the digital realm. The choice of term can depend on the context and the specific aspects of the crime being discussed.

While "cybercrime" stands out as the overarching term, "computer crime," "online crime," "virtual crime," and "digital crime" each contribute specific nuances to our understanding of the diverse ways in which criminal activities manifest in the digital realm. A nuanced comprehension of these terms is crucial for fostering effective cybersecurity measures, legal frameworks, and public awareness initiatives in the ongoing battle against digital criminality. As technology continues to advance, the terminology and our understanding of these terms will inevitably evolve, necessitating continuous analysis and adaptation to address emerging challenges in the digital landscape.

3. Terminologies of the study of Crimes on the Internet

The terminology used to describe the study of crimes on the internet can vary, and different terms may emphasize distinct aspects of the field. Here's a brief overview of each term that signifies the study of online crimes:

3.1. Cyber Criminology:

This term combines "cyber," related to computers and digital technology, with "criminology," the study of crime and criminal behavior. It encompasses a broad range of criminal activities in cyberspace. "Cyber criminology" suggests an interdisciplinary approach that considers both the technological and criminological aspects of internet-based offenses (Jaishankar, 2007, 2008, 2011, and 2018; Ngo & Jaishankar, 2017). Jaishankar (2008) developed a theory called, "Space Transition Theory of Cyber Crimes to advance the disicipline of "Cyber Criminology).

The notable votaries of this term (Cyber Criminology) are: Karuppannan Jaishankar, Fawn Ngo, Kyung Choi, Helen Maraz, Me?ko, Gorazd, H Jahankhani and Philip N. Ndubueze.

3.2. Computational Criminology:

"Computational criminology" implies a focus on using computational methods, algorithms, and data analysis techniques to study criminal behavior. This term emphasizes the role of advanced computing technologies and data analytics in understanding and predicting crimes, including those occurring on the internet.

The notable votaries of this term (Computational Criminology) are: Patricia Brantingham, Franke, Katrin, and Srihari, Sargur.

3.3. Computer Criminology:

This term is more specific, centering on the role of computers in criminal activities. "Computer criminology" suggests a focus on offenses that directly involve or target computer systems. It may encompass cybercrimes but could have a more narrow scope than some of the broader terms.

The notable votaries of this term (Computer Criminology) are: Kevin F. Steinmetz and Donn Parker.

3.4. Virtual Criminology:

The term "Virtual Criminology" denotes a specialized focus on criminal activities within virtual or digital environments. It implies an exploration of offenses that take place in spaces created by digital technologies, extending beyond the physical world. This field of study acknowledges the profound impact of virtual spaces, such as online platforms, social networks, and virtual reality realms, on criminal behavior.

The notable votaries of this term (Virtual Criminology) are: Sheila Brown and Matthew Williams.

3.5. Digital Criminology:

"Digital criminology" is a comprehensive term that encompasses a wide array of criminal activities facilitated by digital technologies. "‘Digital criminology’ refers to the rapidly developing field of scholarship that applies criminological, social, cultural and technical theory and methods to the study of crime, deviance and justice in a digital society. Rather than necessarily a sub‐discipline per se, we advocate that digital criminology may provide a fruitful platform from which to expand the boundaries of contemporary criminological theory and research" (Stratton, Powell, & Cameron, 2017, p. 27).

The notable votaries of this term (Digital Criminology) are: Anastasia Powell, Gregory Stratton, and Robin Cameron.

3.6. Human Factor in Cybercrime:

The term "Human Factor in Cybercrime" underscores the critical role that individuals play in the commission, perpetration, and mitigation of cybercriminal activities. Unlike purely technical perspectives, this field of study acknowledges the profound influence of human behavior, cognition, and motivation on the landscape of cybercrimes. By delving into the psychological, social, and ethical dimensions, researchers within this domain seek a nuanced understanding of how human factors contribute to both the vulnerability and resilience of digital systems.

The notable votaries of this term (Human Factors in Cybercrime) are: Eric Rutger Leukfeldt, Tamar Berenblum, Benoit Dupont, Thomas J. Holt, David Maimon, C. Jordan Howell, and George W. Burruss.

The choice between "Cyber Criminology," "Computational Criminology," "Computer Criminology," "Virtual Criminology," and "Digital Criminology" depends on the specific focus and emphasis you want to place within the realm of studying crimes in the digital age. Let's compare these terms:

1. Cyber Criminology: Focus: Encompasses the study of criminal activities in the cyber or online space. It implies an interdisciplinary approach, considering both technological and criminological aspects. Strengths: Recognizes the importance of cyberspace in criminal activities, providing a holistic understanding that extends beyond technology to include criminological theories. Considerations: The term may not explicitly convey the role of computational methods or technologies in the analysis (Jaishankar, 2007, 2008, 2011, and 2018; Ngo & Jaishankar, 2017)..
2. Computational Criminology: Focus: Emphasizes the use of computational methods, algorithms, and data analysis techniques to study criminal behavior. It's more methodologically oriented, with a focus on leveraging computational tools. Strengths: Highlights the role of advanced analytics and data-driven approaches in understanding and predicting criminal behavior. Considerations: May be perceived as more method-specific and may not explicitly capture the broader criminological context.
3. Computer Criminology:Focus: Centers on the role of computers in criminal activities. Implies a narrower focus on offenses directly involving or targeting computer systems. Strengths: Offers specificity in highlighting the centrality of computers in criminal activities. Considerations: May not encompass the full spectrum of digital crimes that extend beyond computer systems.
4. Virtual Criminology: Focus: Implies a focus on criminal activities within virtual environments, such as online gaming platforms. It may extend to offenses occurring in digital realms that are not limited to the internet. Strengths: Acknowledges the diversity of virtual spaces and their role in criminal activities. Considerations: May be less commonly used and might require clarification regarding the specific virtual environments under consideration.
5. Digital Criminology: Focus: Broadly encompasses criminal activities facilitated by digital technologies. It is an inclusive term that recognizes the diverse ways technology is involved in criminal behavior. Strengths: Encompasses a wide array of offenses, both online and offline, providing a comprehensive view of criminal activities in the digital age. Considerations: Can be seen as a broad and overarching term, potentially lacking specificity in certain contexts.
6. Human Factor in Cybercrime: Focus: The Human Factor in Cybercrime delves into the intricate interplay between human behavior and criminal activities in the digital realm. Unlike purely technical perspectives, this field acknowledges that every cybercrime involves a human actor, introducing a dynamic element that profoundly influences the commission and mitigation of digital offenses. Strengths: This comprehensive perspective allows for the development of effective prevention and intervention strategies that account for the diversity of human motivations and behaviors in cyberspace. Considerations: While highlighting the human factor, this term may not explicitly convey the role of computational methods or technologies in the analysis of cybercrimes. The focus on human behavior should be complemented by an awareness of the technological landscape to develop comprehensive cybersecurity measures.

Comparative Analysis:

• If you prioritize a multidisciplinary approach that considers both technological and criminological aspects, "Cyber Criminology" might be suitable.
• If your focus is on the use of computational methods and data analytics in studying criminal behavior, "Computational Criminology" is apt.
• If you want to highlight the centrality of computers in criminal activities, "Computer Criminology" provides specificity.
• If you are interested in criminal activities within virtual environments, "Virtual Criminology" captures that focus.
• If you seek a broad term that encompasses a wide range of digital offenses, "Digital Criminology" may be the most suitable.
• If you want to study the intricacies of cybercrime from a human angle, the term "Human Factor" stands as a crucial focal point, recognizing that behind every digital offense lies the intricate interplay of human motivations, and behaviors.

In summary, the choice of terminology depends on the specific emphasis and scope of the study.

After comparing all the other terminologies, I find that "Cyber Criminology" is the most inclusive and widely used term that examines crimes on the internet from a multidisciplinary perspective. It also includes "Human Factors in Cybercrime".

I coined this term (cyber criminology) in 2007 and defined it as "the study of causation of crimes that occur in the cyberspace and its impact in the physical space" (Jaishankar, 2007, 2008, 2011, and 2018; Ngo & Jaishankar, 2017).

4. Cyber Criminology: Inclusive of Human Factors

• Interdisciplinary Nature: Cyber Criminology, by its very nature, is interdisciplinary, incorporating aspects of criminology, sociology, psychology, victimology, and computer/internet sciences. This interdisciplinary approach inherently addresses the human factor by recognizing that cybercrimes involve complex interactions between technology and human behavior (Jaishankar, 2007, 2008, 2011, and 2018; Ngo & Jaishankar, 2017).
• Psychological Insights: Cyber Criminology delves into the motivations, psychological profiles, and behavioral patterns of cybercriminals. It considers the human element behind cyber offenses, examining factors such as individual motivations, group dynamics, and the psychological drivers influencing criminal behavior in the digital realm (Jaishankar, 2007, 2008, 2011, and 2018; Ngo & Jaishankar, 2017)..

User-Centric Approach:

• Focus on End-Users: Cyber Criminology acknowledges the role of end-users in the cybersecurity landscape. It recognizes that the effectiveness of cybersecurity measures is heavily influenced by human behavior, awareness, and adherence to security protocols. This user-centric approach extends beyond technical solutions to consider the human-centric aspects of cybersecurity.
• Cybersecurity Awareness: Within Cyber Criminology, there is a focus on designing and assessing cybersecurity awareness programs. These initiatives aim to educate individuals about cyber threats, emphasizing the human element in building a cyber-resilient society. Understanding the psychological and social factors that influence user behavior is integral to the success of these awareness efforts.

Social Engineering and Manipulation:

• Analysis of Social Engineering: Cyber Criminology includes the study of social engineering techniques employed by cybercriminals. It explores how individuals can be manipulated through psychological tactics, emphasizing the importance of understanding human vulnerabilities to enhance cybersecurity defenses.
• Deception and Persuasion: Examining the tactics of deception, persuasion, and manipulation in the digital space, Cyber Criminology provides insights into the strategies employed by cybercriminals to exploit human trust, ultimately contributing to a more nuanced understanding of cyber threats.

Ethical Considerations:

• Ethical Dimension: Cyber Criminology recognizes the ethical considerations associated with studying cybercrimes and the human factor within this context. It involves a responsible approach to handling sensitive data and behavioral insights, emphasizing the ethical dimensions of conducting research in this field.

While the term "Human Factor in Cybercrime" highlights the centrality of human elements in cyber offenses, it's evident that Cyber Criminology inherently encompasses and deeply integrates the study of the human factor (Jaishankar, 2007, 2008, 2011, and 2018; Ngo & Jaishankar, 2017). Cyber Criminology provides a comprehensive framework that explicitly acknowledges and explores the intricate connections between human behavior and cybercriminal activities, making it a suitable and encompassing term for research and discourse in this evolving field (Jaishankar, 2007, 2008, 2011, and 2018; Ngo & Jaishankar, 2017).

Applications and Significance: The significance of cyber criminology extends to various sectors, including law enforcement, cybersecurity professionals, policymakers, and academia. Law enforcement agencies can benefit from specialized training in cyber criminology to enhance their capabilities in investigating and combating digital offenses. Cybersecurity professionals can leverage insights from this field to fortify digital systems and develop proactive strategies against emerging cyber threats.

Policymakers, armed with a deep understanding of the psychological and societal dimensions of cybercrime, can enact legislation that not only punishes offenders but also addresses the root causes of digital criminality. Academic institutions can contribute to the growth of cyber criminology by offering specialized courses and fostering research initiatives that advance our understanding of the ever-evolving landscape of cyber threats.

Challenges and Future Directions: The field of cyber criminology is not without its challenges. The rapid evolution of technology, the global nature of cyber threats, and the constant adaptation of cybercriminal tactics necessitate ongoing research and collaboration. As the digital landscape continues to transform, cyber criminology must remain agile, incorporating insights from emerging technologies, societal changes, and legal developments.

The creation of the field of cyber criminology (Jaishankar, 2007) represents a crucial step in our collective efforts to understand, mitigate, and prevent digital offenses. By integrating technological, psychological, legal, and societal perspectives, cyber criminology offers a holistic approach to tackling the complexities of cyber threats. As this field matures, it is poised to become an indispensable tool in the arsenal against cybercrime, contributing to the creation of a safer and more secure digital environment for individuals, organizations, and societies at large.

Conclusion

Navigating the complex terrain of digital crimes and criminology requires a nuanced understanding of terminologies that encapsulate the breadth and depth of this multifaceted realm. The continuous refinement and adaptation of these terms are imperative as we collectively strive to create a safer and more secure digital environment for individuals, organizations, and societies at large.

The terminologies explored in this article offer lenses through which we understand, analyze, and combat digital crimes. "Cyber Crime" and "Cyber Criminology" emerge as a comprehensive and inclusive term, encompassing the human factor and reflecting the dynamic nature of cyber threats. The multidisciplinary nature of cyber criminology positions it as a pivotal tool in the ongoing war against digital criminality, fostering a holistic approach that integrates technological, psychological, legal, and societal perspectives. The evolution of these terminologies mirrors the continuous adaptation required in the face of emerging challenges. As technology advances, the study of cybercrimes must remain agile, incorporating insights from diverse disciplines and adapting to the evolving digital landscape.

References

Jaishankar K. (2018). Cyber Criminology as an Academic Discipline: History, Contribution and Impact. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 12(1), 1-8.

Jaishankar, K. (Ed.) (2011). Cyber Criminology: Exploring Internet Crimes? and Criminal behavior. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group.?ISBN:? 9781439829493.

Jaishankar, K. (2007) Cyber criminology: Evolving a novel discipline with a new journal. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 1(1): 1–6.

Jaishankar, K. (2008) Space transition theory of cybercrime. In Schmallagar, F. and Pittaro, M. (Eds), Crimes of the Internet. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 283–301.

Ngo, F., & Jaishankar K. (2017). Special Article: Commemorating a Decade in Existence of the International Journal of Cyber Criminology: A Research Agenda to Advance the Scholarship on Cyber Crime. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 11(1), 1-9. https://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.495762

Stratton, G., Powell, A., & Cameron, R. (2017). Crime and Justice in Digital Society: Towards a ‘Digital Criminology’?. International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy, 6(2), 17-33. https://doi.org/10.5204/ijcjsd.v6i2.355

Powell, A., Stratton, G., & Cameron, R. (2018). Digital Criminology: Crime and Justice in Digital Society. Oxon, Abingdon: Routledge. 978-1-138-63674-3.

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Steinmetz, K. F. (2024). Against Cybercrime: Toward a Realist Criminology of Computer Crime. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. 978-1-032-23509-7.