VIETNAMESE FOOD AND CHAMPAGNE: INTERACTIONS AND SYNERGIES

Tzvetan Mihaylov & Ph??ng Thanh Hà

Executive Summary

This study aims to explore the possible interactions among the main ingredients in the traditional Vietnamese cuisine and the principal styles of Champagne wines*. More precisely, it is to examine the impact of sweetness, bitterness, acidity, texture and other tactile sensations on the appreciation of different styles of champagnes. From the opposite side to determine the effect of CO2, acidity, sweetness, bitterness and mouthfeel, but also how the age of the champagne will impact the perception of the food. The final idea is to condense concrete guidelines for enhanced Vietnamese food and champagne pairing experiences. This research targets to collect and analyse expert recommendations, organise tastings among professionals (including eminent chefs and sommeliers) and test the result on three groups of students from a hospitality institution. The participants estimate the main characteristics of the wines and later the appreciation of food and wine match, based on their personal perceptions. The survey scale is from 0 to 10. Each group is composed of 80% Vietnamese and 20% other Asian students. Outcomes of this research are explicit recommendations for food and champagne pairing, based on different wine styles and food characteristics.

*Champagne only comes from Champagne. This prestigious name can only be used for sparkling wines produced in the Champagne region in northern France, following the very strict lows of production (Comité Champagne).

Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 2: Historic Context and Literature Review

2.1. Historical and traditional aspect:

2.1.1. Chinese influences:

2.1.2. French influences:     

2.1.3. Khmer influences:     

2.2. Geographic aspect:     

2.3. Human aspect:     

Chapter 3: Research Results and Discussions     

3.1. A Briefing On Research Methodology:    

3.2. Results and Discussions:     

3.2.1. According to the styles of champagne:    

3.2.2. According to the types of food:     

3.2.2.1. Based on preparation techniques:          

3.2.2.2. Based on the main ingredient:          

Chapter 4: Conclusion     

References

Chapter 1: Introduction

One of the positive aspects of the mondialisation is that today we can enjoy a portion of sashimi from Japan with a glass of Blanc de Blancs from Champagne. Wine is a natural companion for the food and the successful paring of food and wine can enhance the overall satisfaction of the consumer from pleasant to memorable (Harrington, 2008). Nevertheless, for long time the wine was enjoyed mainly in the place of production, paired with local food. Nowadays, the things have changed. Most of the best restaurants in the world propose a fusion cuisine and recommend pairing with wine coming from the entire world. Even countries like China or India, with no tradition in wine consumption, not only started their own production, but will soon be among the main wine producers and consumers (Wang, 2018). The Asian countries are more and more interested in Champagne. An evidence is that Japan is the the third biggest importer (in constant progress) and China registered a progression of 51,9% for 2017, and another 10.1% for 2018, before going down for 12% in 2019, because of the trade tensions with the USA (Comité Champagne, 2017, 2018, 2019). The other Asian countries are also susceptible to follow (Millar, 2013).

Even if Vietnam is almost inexistent on the map of Champagne consumers, there is a huge potential for development. The food takes a very important part in the Vietnamese culture and in the daily life of Vietnamese people. Therefore, the harmonious pairing of champagne with local food will be a perfect tool for its promotion. However, typical Western notions as “fish with white and meat with red” are not relevant for the Vietnamese cuisine. Instead of menus of three, four, five or more courses, Vietnamese meal is a combination of many side dishes together with steamed rice and soup. The hot or sweet spices, the multitude of divers herbs or fermented high-flavoured food can be a problem for many conventional wines but it should not disturb much the champagne. The bubbles together with the high natural acidity and the presence of dosage, not only can help to cope with the Vietnamese food, but also create a new synergetic sensations.

The aim of this study is to determine the main interactions of Vietnamese food and champagne, in order to develop general guidelines for successful food and champagne pairing. In such way, not only can champagne be integrated in the local culture, but also may help Vietnamese cuisine to be presented in better way abroad.

Chapter 2: Historic Context and Literature Review 

Asian cuisine in general is getting more and more popular all over the world (Kim, Choe and Lee, 2016). For unknown reasons, Vietnamese food used to remain much less popular compared to others until recently. Doing a simple search for books on Amazon (Amazon.com, 2019), searchers will see a significant advantage given to Thai, Japanese, Chinese or Indian cuisine by the number of relevant results found. Nevertheless, Vietnamese dishes are highly appreciated globally for their limited use of oily or dairy products and large usage of herbs and vegetables. Therefore, Vietnamese cuisine is named in top three of the most ethnic healthiest cuisine on the world (Corapi, 2010). 

The fact that the Vietnamese prefers to use a mix of aromatic herbs and condiments (Nguyen, 2018), instead of providing sauces made from creme or wine as in the French or Italian kitchen, makes the dishes light and digestible. Moreover, fresh herbs are usually generously served on the table, varied from dishes that they accompany with, in order to enhance and complete the taste. There are cultural guidelines, which have been existing for centuries, written by ancients and continued from one generation to another, to show which herb goes best with which type of meat or fish or even vegetable. For instance, 

“Con gà c?c tác lá chanh 

Con l?n ?n ?n mua hành cho t?i 

Con chó khóc ??ng khóc ng?i

M? ?i ?i ch? mua t?i ??ng ri?ng 

Rau t?m n?u v?i ru?t b?u 

Ch?ng chan v? húp g?t ??u khen ngon.” (M?, 2003), 

which can be translated and simplified to understand (pardon the authors for not being able to fully transmit the original poetics) as chicken must be paired with lemon leaves, pork has to be cooked with onions, dog’s meat (yes, you did not mis-read…) should be served with galangal and lastly shrimps are accompanied by gourd. That was a small but widely known example to illustrate the belief of the Vietnamese in cooking and combining ingredients within a dish. 

Unlike Thai food, in which coconut milk and chilli pepper are broadly found in cooking recipes, or Chinese food that significantly contains oil and very often is over-salted, Vietnamese cuisine has its own originality and deliciousness thanks to the great harmony of flavours. It comes under of variations but always with the major purpose to keep the perfect balance in relation with the elements of nature. Vietnamese people value individual taste, which results in the practice of using dipping sauces, which provides saltiness. They are commonly fish sauce, soy sauce or bean sauce… to dip food in or add in for personal references.

Viet Nam has a long and complex history within the land itself and also with other nations all around the world, which positively has affected on the S-shaped country’s cuisine. The local people have learnt and adapted the food to the local taste as well the available access to ingredients and cooking methods. 

In addition, the natural living conditions in different regions, or what the Vietnamese do for a living, especially their culture (family, religious or regional) do impact on the way they appreciate the food.

2.1. Historical and traditional aspect:

Food plays a major meaning in the Vietnamese’s life. The country is agricultural based and has an especially deep knowledge and culture of floating rice. Like the bread in the Western part of the globe, a casserole of cooked rice is found as a main component in any family’s daily meals. Over the time, the dishes made from rice have developed to be more sophisticate. Some examples can be given are bánh dày, bánh giò, bánh ?úc,… They are freshly handmade from newly harvested rice flour and accompanied by some toppings such as stir-fried pork meat and chopped wood ear fungus (of course some typical herbs and seasoning can not be missed). 

There is a fun fact here, which is that Vietnamese people have always been trying to create a story behind the food to explain its origin and meaning. Those stories are often related to family love, nature or the wars that the country had gone through, and told from generations to generations with love and proud. 

In the Vietnamese cuisine, there are some principles, which have been existing and being followed since the very first day, when the country was once created by Hùng Kings' Empire - back into 2879 B.C. 

In the first place is “sharing”. The food is always made, presented and brought all together at the same time to the table by big service plates or bowls. Each member in the family has a small bowl then he/she will use the cutleries provided or just with his/her chopsticks to take the food and enjoy. 

This tradition underlines the fact that people do not want to be disturbed during the eating time (“tr?i ?ánh tránh b?a ?n” - even punishments should not be executed at a meal time) by standing up and going to prepare dishes after dishes - unlike the Western countries, in where we have a basic dinner with three courses: starter, main then dessert served one after the other.

Meanwhile, this habit shows the “love, respect and power” among all family’s members. You take some food and give into someone’s bowl indicates that you care and pay attention to the person. The children and elders in the house are given (to choose) the better parts from every dish. In the old time, the wives also were the last one to take the food for themselves. The husbands are often received some symbolising elements such as heads of chickens or fishes since they are the breadwinners. 

In the case when the family is hosting guests, obviously the guests will be let to take their choice before anyone else do. 

The second point that we want to mention in this part is Vietnamese wars in the past. There is a song written by a country lover and talented composer, Tr?nh C?ng S?n: “M?t ngàn n?m n? l? gi?c Tàu, m?t tr?m n?m ?? h? gi?c Tay, hai m??i n?m n?i chi?n t?ng ngày…” (One thousand years of slavery to the Chinese, one hundred years of domination of the West, and twenty years of civil war every day). Vietnam had a complicating one thousand years of history with China, then another century fought against the French colonialism and imperialism, the Japanese power and American force. Finally, it was the Pol Pot clique, and the civil war lasted around 20 years between the Northern and Southern parts. According to K.W. Taylor in the book A history of the Vietnamese, “the Vietnamese past is full of personalities and events both obscure and famous, and often the obscure have had greater effect upon the direction of culture, society, and politics than have the famous”. 

In this section, the Vietnamese food will be emphasised on how it has been impacted by the Chinese, French and Khmer people.

2.1.1. Chinese influences:

• Conception of eating: There should be three main meals per day - in the morning, at mid-day and in the evening. Each one of them mainly is composed by rice and accompanied by some protein components and vegetables. The balance within a dish or within a meal is considered as a vital factor. Not only does it illustrate the nutritions contained in the dishes, but also it aims to the balance among the ingredients. The Vietnamese people have the same belief as the Chinese do, which is all ingredients have their own distinct character of hot or cold (yin or yang) regardless the temperature condition. For example, seafood has always been considered as a cold dish; therefore, it is often served with some “hot” pieces such as ginger, hot chilli, and lemongrass to make the balance. Vietnamese people trust that “cold food” can cause diarrhoea while “hot food” can hurt stomach and bring acnes. Based on the old traditional medicine records, to avoid illnesses such as poisoning, there are some combinations, which are highly discouraged to be matched together for instance milk with rich-in-vitamin C-juice, liver cooked with carrot or green bean sprout, or egg and garlic. 
• The art of cooking: In the old time, the ancient Vietnamese had simple methods of cooking, which are nowadays still more preferable. However, the Chinese has brought a positive impact on the way the Vietnamese diverse their cooking approach. Instead of basically boiling, poaching, and deep frying, the cooking way has been expanded to vapouring, grilling, pickling and salting. Visiting towns lying on the Vietnamese border with China, there are specialities such as smoked buffalo meat in the north-west (the meat is sliced into thin pieces then marinated and finally let dried over a burning firewood for a few days), peking Beijing roast duck style in Lang Son, or sticky rice cooked with coconut milk in a bamboo stick (c?m lam). In Ho Chi Minh City, there are numerous markets and districts, where Chinese people used to live and work. The food in this city, therefore, is very much in the Chinese style - dim-sum, dumpling and wonton soup… 
• The art of eating/enjoying: The way someone eats is considered as a personal culture and the person is judged as “educated” or not. The Vietnamese used to say “?n tr?ng n?i, ng?i tr?ng h??ng”, which means that “watch the casserole when you eat and watch the place when you take a seat”. A well cultivated individual should know to help elders sit first at more convenient places (a still place that is not on the passage and easy to reach out to food on the table). In Vietnam, it is common to have kitchen connected to living room, where sometimes there is a sacred corner for remembering ancestors of the family. Thus, when taking a seat, should avoid staying straight to that direction or turning back against it. “Watching the casserole” is to know what can be taken to eat and when to stop. For example, the dish is designed for six people, of course no one should take more than his estimated even part. Additionally, the first one to pick should avoid to take the best or the most delicious part from the dish. Lastly, it also requires attentiveness to watch and see if the plate of food is out of reach of somebody, in order to assist them (one can possibly take food and put into another’s bowl as long as he/she remembers to turn his/her pair of chopsticks up-side-down first before the action). 

2.1.2. French influences:

The co-author is privileged to be a Vietnamese exposed to French people and culture in general, and its cuisine particularly thanks to her life in the French-speaking part of Switzerland since her eighteenth year. This allows her, together with her grand passion about food and her profession in the hospitality industry, to observe, learn and have hands-on experience then to be able to compare and understand the mutual beauty and/or shared characters between the two cuisines, Vietnamese and French. 

French people during the colonisation are credited for introducing number of foreign ingredients for cooking into Vietnam. These are dairy products (milk and cream), bread, potato, carrot, onion, asparagus and coffee… The Vietnamese have adapted them to the local taste and combine with different availabilities found in its market. That creative and happy marriage results in several Vietnamese specialities, which are these days well-known across the globe. To call out some representatives, the most famous and loved one is bánh mì, which is the original French baguette transformed into a shorter, airier, fluffier and crunchier bread. It is designed for breakfast and/or fast lunch. The bread is stuffed with various sorts of ingredients, typically and classically are homemade egg yolk “mayonnaise”, pork liver paté, char siu pork, pork salami, pickles, coriander and scallion, and finally dressed with homemade spicy and savoury sauces. Beef, chicken and other versions of bánh mì are widely served nowadays throughout the country as well to reach foreign tourists and young locals. 

Cà phê s?a, aka cà phê nau / brown coffee, usually served cold with ice cubes. It was inspired by the café au lait but fresh milk is replaced by sweetened condensed milk. What make the name of this coffee on the world's drinks map are the very particular thick and deep taste with strong caramel and chocolate notes, gained from the coffee beans of the Central Highlands in Vietnam, distinct local roasting techniques, and notable brewing style with the phin (filter). To have a coffee is nearly compulsory in the morning, especially to ones living in the Southern part of the country. 

The last example is th?t bò x?t vang, which is stew beef with potato, carrot, onion and tomato in red wine sauce seasoned with fish sauce, Chinese five spices, cinnamon and anise star It is often served with bread, rice noodles (s?i ph?) or rice. 

From all the descriptions above, we can see throughly how the French in the past made remarkable impacts on the locals in Vietnam, their cuisine, eating and drinking habits.

Globalisation, curiosity, positive financial situations of the middle and high class individuals, and the young generation of consumer raise the demand for fine dining and food and wine pairing. In major cities like Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh, there are now a considerable number of fine dining restaurants operated by young and entrepreneurial Vietnamese coming back from abroad, which serve fusion Vietnamese food in a tasting menu style at a remarkable high price. These restaurants offer a modern design space with great ambiance, inventive dishes by combining seasonal local products, a touch of traditional seasonings with French/Western cooking methods and the sophisticating art of food plating. The complete experience comes in a package of food and beverages (alcohol or non-alcohol drinks) pairings. On social media platforms and discussion forums, customers seem to be convinced and value this unique experience. For some, it might not be affordable to have it too often; however, most of the people agree on trying at least once in a blue moon.  

2.1.3. Khmer influences:

90% of Khmer people are found in Cambodia. The rest is spread around South and South-East Asian countries, including Vietnam. In Vietnam, they are a one out of fifty-four official ethnic groups. The are distinct from others thanks to their own language, tradition and culture. They contributed some signature dishes to the cuisine of Mekong river delta region in particular and the country in general. These are known for their sweeter flavour due to the use of coconut milk. Bánh th?t n?t is a dessert cake speciality made from rice flour, coconut and fruits of palmyra palm, which can only be grown in this part. Besides, m?m cá linh (fermented siamese mud carp fish sauce) and dishes cooked with it as primary ingredients like bún m?m, l?u m?m (the broth of a hot soup or hotpot based on that fish sauce) are credited to Khmer people. 

2.2. Geographic aspect:

Vietnamese food is exceptionally diverse. The country lies by the South China Sea for 3’260 kilometres. Along that length, in the east of Vietnam, there are 28 plain terrain provinces bordering the sea. In contrast, the western side has higher terrain with mountains. Vietnam is situated between the latitudes of 8 and 24° North. In general, the country has a tropical climate; it is, however, distinct from one region to another region due to specific locations, winds, different terrains and time of the year. Besides those natural aspects, Vietnamese society is diversified thanks to the remarkable number of ethnic groups of people (fifty-four different). Consequently, Vietnamese food is appreciated truly miscellaneous based on position, climatic conditions and culture. All those factors result in variety and availability of food and ingredients, eating habits and regional specialities. 

The co-author is thrilled to share some fascinating examples. Most of the people are aware that Vietnam is divided into three major regions: Northern, Central and Southern part. Nevertheless, to be able to illustrate best the distinctnesses of Vietnamese cuisine, we would extend it to other dimensions as followed: 

• North to South
• Mountainous to sea areas
• Level of height in topography

First and foremost, in different regions, there are different availabilities of ingredients and some just uniquely belong to a specific land (this concept together with cooking methods make regions’ specialities). Even though the development of transportation nowadays help to distribute from one to another region at ease, Vietnamese people still tend to use what they are more familiar with and what are harvested from not far away from their location because they love enormously fresh and “alive” food. Traditional Vietnamese women (who mostly take care of family meals) wake up early in the morning, go to local markets to pick and buy what is the best at the time. They do not like to store things up in their fridge or freezer because after that, the taste and texture are believe to not be the same anymore. It does not mean that a family living in urban city will never buy seafood at all, but it will be more like once in a while or for some special occasions.

Secondly, saltiness and spiciness levels are subject to change not only based on personal preferences but also regional taste. It is widely considered that spicy and salty food can help to keep a person warm. Thus, at places with a cold winter, people do season their food accordingly. In addition, undoubtedly, who is born and lives by the sea side, has higher levels of these two components. Another myth is that poor people also eat saltier and spicier in order to save food.

Sweetness level varies as well. Southern people love to add a touch of sugar in every dish that they make.  

Last but not least, tradition is considered extremely important. There are particular dishes, which are set to eat at particular events. For example, at any “more than daily” home meal, there must always have gà lu?c; or bánh ch?ng (sticky rice cake), th?t ??ng (cold jelly pork meat) and giò xào (brawn with wood ear) for T?t (Lunar New Year); or canh bóng bì (pork rind soup) for festive meals…

2.3. Human aspect:

The people of Vietnam are extraordinary. They are strong, patient and hard-working persons. These characteristics are gained from generation to generation with the agricultural life and war time. However, the Vietnamese are not rigid but truly loving, romantic and artistic. Cooking is a way to express love and good food is fundamental for quality life. This specific topic and all anecdotes around it bring people closer to one another. In Vietnam, instead of initiating any conversation by talking about the weather like British people are doing, Vietnamese prefer to ask how it is going with your family and then what you had for your previous meal. There is a joke that there is permanently question hidden at a corner in any Vietnamese’s head: “What food will I have later?”. The locals genuinely love hanging out for snacks and drinks on street-side after work. Time and seasons can not trouble this because Vietnam has “mùa nào th?c n?y” - there is always something nice to put in tummies regardless seasons. For example, during cold and humid winter, people will gather around a boiling hotpot or a smoky grilling stone; in contrast, summertime is definitely for fresh salad and mixed cold noodles. There is an interesting fact about food served in Vietnam, which always comes in form of one-bite or small pieces together. The concept is believed as a result of the imperial time, when there was the existence of king, queen and royal families. It requires more attention and certain sophistication while preparing but help to enjoy food easier and better in terms of diversity. Furthermore, food decoration is essential. Not only is the food delicious but it has also be beautifully presented to remain balance of different colours and underline its focal point. Ideas ordinarily come from natural (tree, flower, animal…) or cultural (symbol) life.  

Chapter 3: Research Results and Discussions

3.1. A Briefing On Research Methodology:

This study is the first official research focusing on Champagne and Vietnamese food pairing. A general Vietnamese food and wine pairing guidelines are also insufficient. In order to collect more relevant information, the researchers adopted both quantitative and qualitative methods towards their primary data collection work. According to Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2016, the former method provides numeric data for the aim to study connections among variables measured numerically, while the latter one profoundly supports those findings by scanning participants’ meanings and reasons behind. The tools selected to apply were survey, which permits researchers to obtain a relatively large amount of data within a small period of time (Crewel, 2013), and interview, which can bring in unique personal opinions and help to express true feelings of individuals (Tella, 2015). The two tools back each other’s weaknesses up and provide a more complete picture.

Questionnaires, broadly used to collect data (Saunders and Lewis, 2011; Colosi, 2006), composed by a set of standardised questions were distributed to three groups of respondent (total number of participants was forty two). Each group included 80% Vietnamese students and 20% other Asian students. All participants were asked to attend fully a Vietnamese food and Champagne tasting and fill in the survey honestly. The survey was designed to acquire critical thoughts and evaluations of each pairing between the typical Vietnamese dish and champagne provided. If the champagne tasted was both vintage and Blanc de Blanc or Blanc de Noirs, the note was repeated in the corresponding column. When more than one champagne from category was tasted, the average of each group was recalculated for a general average. The collected results will positively serve as foundation for making a sufficient guidelines with details recommendations to the subject. 

The researchers used the scale from 1 (worst) to 10 (best). For the final evaluation, we used the example of Harrington (2008), which is considerably popular in similar researches.

• No Match - a “clash” or when the paring results in negative effect on the senses.
• Refreshment - the wine does not match the food, but refreshes the tasting buds in a similar way a glass of water would do.
• Neutral - when the wine is versatile, playing a “sparing partner” to avoid any clashes.
• Good Match - the wine pairs well with the basic characteristic of the dish (acidity, sweetness, bitterness, saltiness) and its weight.
• Synergistic match - when both food and wine taste much better than before - they create a new, unknown and very pleasant dimension. 

We decided that every two points of our scale can correspond to the levels of Harrington. 

0-2 points - No Match/Clash

2-4 points - Refreshment

4-6 points - Neutral

6-7.5 points - Good Match

7.5-10 points - Synergistic Match*

(*With one important remark - we believe that the highest level (synergy) is subjective and can not be applied easily for a large portion of people. For example a group of Epicureans, with similar knowledge and values, can praise certain food and wine pairing, but if they invite certain number of people, chosen randomly on the street, they would not have the same appreciation. Therefore, we lowed slightly the limit, in order to cope with the disparate experience of our tasters.)

In addition to the survey, for the qualitative research, a focus group of twenty-two people was selected as a preparatory research technique. A tasting of fifteen typical Vietnamese dishes (plus certain number of sauces and herbs) and eight different styles of champagnes was conducted by a group of cooking professionals and wine connoisseurs.

The following questions were freely discussed:

• Main characteristics of the Vietnamese cuisine
• Diverse aspects/styles of champagne that make it a perfect choice for food and wine pairing
• Positive or negative interactions between champagne and Vietnamese food based on personal experience

Furthermore, a series of individual interviews with renown sommeliers and chefs were organised. The interviews were conducted in person or via e-mail.

• What is your knowledge about Vietnamese cuisine?
• Do you think that champagne is a wine that matches well Asian food and Vietnamese one in particular?
• Have you already experienced any champagne and Vietnamese food pairings?
• Your appreciation/recommendation?

All interviewees were not impacted by “the researcher’s pre-specified conceptual model”. Respondents were highly encouraged to talk candidly about the theme by answering opened end questions and sharing their personal perspectives as well as experiences (Rowley, 2012; Hannabuss, 1996). The results, therefore, are expected to determine fair and deep insights into the subject (Samuel Craig and Douglas, 2001).

Due to this research’s time limitation, it has cross-sectional time horizon. The two methods mentioned above are combined to work as concurrent mixed methods research. One will be the complement of the other and will bring diversity, meanwhile help with problem solving (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2016). Hence, the data found out through one method can be explained or elevated by the other’s and vice versa. 

3.2. Results and Discussions: 

In this section, we will make a summary of the results of our tastings, as a guidelines for the use of different champagne styles with diverse foods. Yet, before proceeding to it, we would like to state that:

• The food and wine pairing is subjective - personal taste is more important than any recommendations. (Example: Oysters and Blanc de Blanc champagne may be a perfect pairing for most of the people, but it will not please someone who does not support oysters.)
• Two champagnes of the same style could taste very different, even if they come from the same place or made from the same grape variety/varieties. Multitude of elements such as vintage, ageing period, winemaking methods and other factors, may be the reason for this inconsistency. 

3.2.1. According to the styles of champagne:

3.2.1.1. Brut Nature (the driest style of Champagne, with less than 3g/l of residual sugar. Also know as Non-dosé, Zero Dosage or Brut Zero): 

This relatively new style of champagnes is very popular nowadays. Since the dosage influence not only the sweetness, but also the mouthfeel of the wine, this category is more appreciated with lighter spring/summer dishes. An extra-added acidity (sauce with rice vinegar or lemon juice) or fresh herbs (such as lemongrass - S?, lemon leaves - Lá chanh, Vietnamese coriander - Rau r?m, sawtooth coriander - Ngò gai) can make the wine more round, pleasant, fruity and sweeter/less acidic. During our tastings, the Brut Nature wines were very well appreciated with fresh vegetable salads and dips prepared with fish sauce. Surprisingly, one of the best pairing we experienced with Ph? bò was with a Brut Nature. Fish and seafood are the easiest and safest choices. The Gà n??ng lá chanh was also well appreciated - the lemony flavours in the dish made the champagne sweeter and more aromatic. Bánh cu?n added digestive bitterness and longer finish to the wine. The G?i gà b?p c?i salad was very good pairing, appreciated by all the participants. 

This style is not recommended with sweet sauces/dishes and the lack of fattiness on the palate (“gras” in French) make is difficult with more consistent dishes such as V?t n??ng or T??ng ?en and the soy sauce may easily overpower the wine. Fried spring rolls (Nem rán) can make the wine seem aggressive.

3.2.1.2. Blanc de Blancs (Champagne produced only from white gapes. Almost always 100% Chardonnay, other permitted white grapes possibles): 

When young, these champagne are fresh, elegant and delicate. The typical aromas are flowery (white flowers), fruity (citrus, white or tropical fruits), white bread and a touch of mint or ginger are also common. The palate is crisp, sometimes slightly austere. When a little older, these wines develop brioche, stone fruits and honey notes plus more roundness on the palate. And since they age very well, after 8-10 years, they can be extremely complex and pleasant, with toasty, nutty and gingerbread notes, orange, quince or apricot marmalade and toffee. And even if they seem bolder on the palate, they never loose their freshness. 

Young and slightly older Blanc de Blancs are perfect during the summer and are very good match for Con hàu (oysters), seafood and fresh-water or delicate salt-water fish for example G?i s?a (jelly fish salad), G?i cá trích (raw herrings with fresh herbs and rice paper wrappers), Mi?n xào cua (stir-fried glass noodles with crab meat). Also recommended with Nem rán, Gà n??ng lá chanh and dishes served with Húng b?c hà (mint).

3.2.1.3. Blanc de Noirs (Champagne produced only from black gapes, 100% Pinot Noir or Meunier, or a blend of both): 

These are more powerful, often vinous champagnes, characterised by notes of yellow, red and black fruits, enhanced by a touch of flowers (rose, violets). With longer ageing, they develop flavours of dried fruits, spices (liquorice), honey, coffee and nuts. They are recommended for pairing with more consistent dishes such as Bò xào thiên ly (stir-fried beef with thiên ly - flowery plant), Bò kho (beef stewed with carrots, lemongrass, cinnamon, pepper, garlic, and shallots) or Kh?u nh?c (roasted pork loin, marinated in honey, soy sauce and special herbs/spices). It is better to avoid fish sauce and dishes/sauces with raw garlic, vinegar or pickled vegetables because they could make the wine seem harsh and unpleasant.

3.2.1.4. Brut non millésimés / Non-vintage Champagne (Blend of wines from a number of different years): 

This category is by far the most prevailing and is also quite versatile for food and wine pairing. It is a very good choice when we need to match multiple dishes, served at a same time, as it is common for the Vietnamese cuisine. However, each one of this champagnes has a distinctive style, depending on its producer. Therefore, it is better to choose younger, chardonnay driven wines during spring or summer, especially if most of the dishes are based on charcuteries, fish or seafood. For the autumn and winter, or dishes including beef, grilled meat and liver, more consistent and powerful champagne is needed.

3.2.1.5. Millésimé / Vintage (All the grapes are harvested the same year): 

These champagnes are made to express the qualities of a single year and are also aged on lees for much longer period than the non-vintage ones are. It gives them more character, aromatic intensity and great complexity. Such wines deserve to be paired with the most refined dishes, during important occasions and celebrations such as Th?t gà lu?c (Very special boiled yellow chicken) or Cá chình n??ng ri?ng m? (Grilled and caramelised eel fish with fermented rice and galangal). Champagnes in this category are also well appreciated with simpler dishes as Bò xào hoa thiên ly and Gà n??ng lá chanh.

3.2.1.6. Rosé: 

The rosé champagnes are definitely a good and easily appreciated choice for pairing with Vietnamese food. Dishes prepared or served with soy sauce, peanut and coconut, sweet or mild spices (aniseed, cardamom, cinnamon, coriander, curcuma) use to taste delicious with champagne rosé. Nevertheless, it is important to split the style into different sub-categories:

- Rosé d’assemblage (produced by blending of red and white base wines):

In general, the wines of this category are delicate and charming, often with palatable sweetness. They are recommended for fish, shellfish or white meat dishes, prepared with pineapple or coconut, or served with sweeter sauces. 

 - Rosé de maceration (produced by maceration of black grapes):

Such wines are more vinous, with more present fruity notes (mainly red fruits) and slightly perceptible tannins. They will pair perfectly with saltwater fish, white or red meat dishes, prepared with ginger, cardamom or aniseed spices. The tannins can help to increase the burning sensation in hot spicy dishes - which can be pleasant for certain palates.

• Vintage/Cuvée de Prestige rosé:

The prestigious wines in this category deserve a special attention. It is not possible to generalise because the style can differ a lot from one producer to another. We can highly recommend to take advice from a champagne expert for each particular case. When older, these wines are often best on their own. It is better to avoid dishes/sauces with raw garlic, fennel seeds or pickled vegetables because they will disturb the balance of the wine.

3.2.1.7. Demi-Sec (sweeter style of Champagne, between 32 and 50g/l of residual sugar): 

This category seems less popular nowadays, mainly due to the misinterpretation of the dosage as a sort of “make-up”, which hides the true expression of wine and terroir. However, a well-balanced demi-sec champagne, that keeps its freshness, is closer to an off-dry Mosel Riesling or Vouvray than to a sweet desert wine. Therefore, it is really prone to food and wine pairings. The higher sugar level increases smoothness on the palate and adds richness to the wine. In the same time, pairing with food decreases the perception of sweetness. The demi-sec champagnes are a perfect choice for flavourful dishes with sweet elements or to reduce the burning perception in hot spicy food. It can be used as an attractive introduction to the world of champagne for the inexperienced palates.

3.2.1.8. Cellar Matured (more than 7 years after disgorgment): 

This category is not very common and surely is not so easy to find an old but well-preserved bottle of champagne in Vietnam. Nevertheless, among the amateurs, there is a rising interest for old vintage (and even non-vintage from certain producers) long matured champagne. Hence, we decided to make a small experiment and include it in our results. The post disgorgement maturation changes significantly the organoleptic profile of the champagne. New aromas of toasted or ginger bread appear, beside honey, orange marmalade, dried or candied fruits and roasted coffee or almonds. Such rare (and often expensive) champagnes are more difficult for food pairing. Nevertheless, we observed interesting interactions with X?t xì d?u (soy sauce), which enhanced the champagne flavours instead of overwhelming the wine. V?t n??ng and Cá kho t? were also good choices. The both helped to reduce the notes of ageing (mushrooms and forest floor) and brought out freshness to the wine.

3.2.2. According to the types of food:

3.2.2.1. Based on preparation techniques:

3.2.2.1.a. Rolls: 

For Bánh cu?n and G?i cu?n (fresh summer rolls), Blanc de Blancs seem to be the best choice, followed by Brut Nature and Non-vintage champagne. Attention to avoid Brut Nature if the food is served with T??ng ?en (hoisin peanut sauce) - the sweetness can make the wine aggressive. They are not really appreciated with old mature champagne and may give bitterness to the Blanc de Noirs (during our tastings, it was unpleasant for some participants but digestive for others). Fried spring rolls Nem rán / Ch? giò are enjoyed with Blanc de Blancs but are neutral with Brut Nature, Vintage and mature champagnes. Bánh xèo is very good with Rosé d’assemblage, Non-vintage and Blanc de Blancs.

3.2.2.1.b. Salads: 

G?i gà b?p c?i is very well appreciated with Brut Nature. Blanc de Blancs and a vintage champagne are also a good pairing. Older champagnes, rosé and Blanc de Noirs are not the best choice here. G?i ?u ?? (green papaya salad with roasted peanuts) is more flavourful, with good acidity and sweet notes. A good pairing for it could be a non-vintage or a Blanc de Blancs with slightly higher dosage. 

3.2.2.1.c. Soups: 

A suspicion, risen by certain sommeliers, was that hot soup and cold wine wouldn’t go well together. Nevertheless, not a single participant in our tasting panel showed any apprehension. In Vietnam, there is nothing more normal than to drink ice cold beer or tea with the soup. Since Ph? is the most popular Vietnamese dish, we thought that it would be compulsory to include in our tastings. However, traditionally Ph? is consumed in the morning and for the autochthones, it seemed to be strange to start a day with champagne. The best pairing for Ph? in our tasting was with a Brut Nature champagne, followed closely by Blanc de Blancs and Blanc de Noirs. Bún bò Hu?, with its strong aromas of lemongrass and powerful flavour due to the use of shrimp paste, is well appreciated with a vintage champagne (Chardonnay based) and with Blanc de Blancs. They both match well flavour and acidity of the pineapple and cut trough the fattiness of the pork feet. Bún riêu cua (rice vermicelli crab soup) is another interesting choice, very good with Blanc de Blancs and Blanc de Noirs because of the lighter texture and appetising acidity from the tomato and fermented rice broth. The non-vintage wines are possible good choice for soups, but it is better to choose lighter, fresher style. The older vintage champagnes are not recommended. 

3.2.2.1.d. Grilled/Roasted food: 

Sò ?i?p n??ng m? hành are scallops that match well Rosé de Saignée, slightly older Blanc de Blancs and Vintage champagnes with higher proportion of Chardonnay. They are also very pleasant with the other styles. Gà n??ng lá chanh is an easy match for all the champagnes styles with preference for more powerful wines that keep their freshness. The sweetness of the dark honeyed sauce of V?t n??ng and spiced meat demand champagne with certain presence and some sweetness. Therefore, a Vintage  or Blanc de Noirs champagne (especially with some years in the cellar) could be the best match. The honeyed flavours of the sauce are pairing the honeyed, ginger bread like flavours in the wine. The texture and fattiness of the duck are looking for similar structure in the wine and older, more mature champagnes (both white and rosé) are the right answer. The crunchy skin of Heo quay giòn bì creates a very pleasant sensation when it is paired with the lively bubbles. The natural high acidity of the champagne cuts trough the fattiness of the dish. Therefore, we have an easy natural match with champagne with preference for Blanc de Noirs and Rosé because of the consistency of the dish.

3.2.2.1.e. Stir-fried food: 

Fried food is oily and need high acidity in order to avoid fast saturation of the palate. According to the main ingredient, the champagne should be younger, fresher or the opposite - more vinous and powerful. Stir-fried dishes with seafood and fish will need a younger Blanc de Blancs, Non-vintage or Brut Nature champagne. 

3.2.2.1.f. Braised food: 

This preparation method requires more powerful champagnes - Blanc de Noirs, Vintage, Rosés de Saignée and certain long matured bottles will be the right choice. Nevertheless, the main ingredient is important - Cá kho t? (fish) will be better with matured Blanc de Blancs or older Vintage because the caramelised flavours from the sauce will match the toffee, gingerbread, dried fruit and mocca notes in the champagne. Bò kho is made from beef but is also flavoured with multiple spices and herbs. In order to not loose the wine, more vinous and powerful wines (Blanc de Noirs, Rosé de Saignée, Vintage) are better choices. Bò xào hoa thiên ly that has meat but also vegetables, finally is best with a more versatile Non-vintage. The Blanc de Noirs is also a good choice but Brut Nature should be avoided. 

3.2.2.2. Based on the main ingredient: 

3.2.2.2.a. Seafood:

In general, simple seafood is best with Brut Nature, Blanc de Blancs and younger Non-vintage champagnes. For example, raw oysters with Brut Nature and younger Blanc de Blancs, when cooked oysters with more consistent Blanc de Blancs, Non-vintage or even Vintage champagne. Lobsters or langoustines may need a Blanc de Noirs champagne. When grilled, Rosé champagne also will be a right choice. 

3.2.2.2.b. Fish:

Lighter, fresh-water fish should be served with delicate Blanc de Blancs or lighter style Non-vintage champagne. Salt-water fish, especially grilled, would be better with Blanc de Noirs, more powerful Non-vintage and even Vintage champagnes. 

3.2.2.2.c. Chicken/poultry:

The chicken and duck are considered as quality meals in Vietnam. Therefore, the pairing with champagne seems very interesting. However, the taste of the Vietnamese chickens (mostly free range elevated) is quite pronounced, in the best sense of the term and they need champagnes with certain character. The same goes to duck meat that also need body and flavourful profile. It is best with Blanc de Noirs, Vintage with majority of black grapes in the blend and Rosé champagnes. Roasted and boiled chicken are very pleasant with Vintage, older Blanc de Blancs and more powerful Non-vintage champagnes.

3.2.2.2.d. Pork: 

It is very largely used in Vietnam - stuffing for rolls (Bánh cu?n, Bánh xèo), pig ears salad (G?i tai heo), meatballs in a soup (Bún m?c), grilled (Ba r?i n??ng), braised (S??n non kho tiêu). It is better to choose lighter Non-vintage, Blanc de Blancs and Brut Nature for salads, fresh rolls and lighter soups and take more powerful Non-vintage, Blanc de Noirs, Vintage and Rosé for the grilled and braised pork. 

3.2.2.2.e. Beef:

Most of the time included in dishes that are stir-fried with vegetables. Non-vintage, Blanc de Noirs and Vintage are the best choices. When the beef is braised, powerful Blanc de Noir, Vintage or Rosé de Saignée are recommended.

3.2.2.2.f. Sauces:

Unlike from its use in Western cuisine, a sauce in Vietnam is a liquid condiment that can be added to the food as seasoning, or serve as a primary element in dipping preparations. The most important is N??c m?m (fish sauce) and its variants, followed by N??c t??ng (soy), T??ng ?en (hoisin) and T??ng b?n (bean sauce). They will serve as a base for more than twenty types of dipping sauces. Each one of them is made to accompany a specific type of food. From the other side, a dish is not complete without its typical dipping preparation. The dippings with N??c m?m are quite salty (normally lime juice is also added) and in general champagne friendly. In certain occasions this dipping could make the wine seem neutral. M?m t?m (fermented shrimp paste) used in the North has very powerful odour but is used in tiny quantities and normally does not influence much the appreciation of the champagne. Another typical Northern seasoning is Mu?i tiêu chanh (Salt with pepper and lemon). This one is important, as used as condiment with chicken, steamed and grilled seafood and fish. Again the saltiness and the acidity go well the champagne in general. In the Southern Vietnam, sweeter dipping sauces are common (T??ng ?en, N??c t??ng). Therefore, it is better to pay attention when pairing with Brut Nature or Low dosage champagnes.

3.2.2.2.g. Vegetables / Herbs:

In general, vegetal notes in wine are a sign of under ripened grapes and when dominant, they are seen as a flaw. Thus, such notes in wine are not often cited as possible association for pairing with vegetal or herbaceous notes in the food. Nevertheless, subtle vegetal notes are part of the complexity of young champagnes, certain Blanc de Blancs and even vintage champagnes. Some of the best chefs propose food and champagne pairings including asparagus, artichoke, verbena, sage, fennel and even garlic (Brissaud, 2011; Coutant, Elena, Jamesse and Lehmann, 2007). In our tastings, it was clear that champagnes with slightly vegetal (or herbaceous) notes were well appreciated with salads or side herbs. Younger wines, Brut nature, Blanc de Blancs and even certain vintage champagnes can show good affinity with most of the herbs/vegetables used in Vietnam. In our tastings, Ngò gai helped to reveal the qualities of a cellar matured champagne - the mushroomy notes disappeared and the wine came “back to live”.

Chapter 4: Conclusion

According to M. Benoit Gouez, the cellar-master of Mo?t et Chandon, "Champagne doesn't like excesses. So if it's too sweet, too acidic, too bitter, too spicy, too hot, whatever, it doesn't work”. Following the results of our research, we can only agree with him. Since balance is the main characteristic of Vietnamese cuisine, very few clashes were declared during our tastings. (Precisely T??ng ?en and V?t n??ng with Brut Nature champagne). Cellar matured champagnes (vintage or not, but kept for more than 7 years) were difficult for two reasons. Firstly, their specific tertiary flavours were not appreciated by the majority of the participants. Secondly, they need more focused pairing in order to show their best. Beside that, the large majority of pairings were declared as “Good Match”.

A closer look at the main food considerations may explain this result: 

• Sourness: Well present, without being harsh. The high natural acidity of champagne is a coherent match.
• Sweetness: Normally counterbalanced with acidity in the food/sauce. May be problematic with Brut Nature or Low dosage cuvées. If higher, rosé, older or vintage champagne and obviously demi-sec cuvées are the best choice.
• Saltiness: Omnipresent (seafood, fish sauce or in dippings). Very champagne friendly, increase the perception of fruitiness and sweetness in the wine. Young and low dosage champagnes that may seem austere are definitely more palatable with salty dishes.
• Bitterness: Not very perceptible in the food, normally creates a digestive sensation. Some people are over-perceptive and may find slightly tannic champagnes (Rosés or oak fermented) unpleasant. 
• Umami: Could make the champagnes seem less fruity but is contra-balanced by the salt. Champagnes with long maturation on lees are best, because they have similar savoury flavour.
• Spiciness: Hot spices are highly appreciated in Asian cuisine. In Vietnam, the level of hotness stays very reasonable. Nevertheless, hot spice can increase the perception of acidity in the wine. Better to choose champagnes with slightly higher dosage. 
• Texture: There is always a crunchy element in the food and it suits very well the bubbles in the wine. 
• Fattiness/Oiliness: Even if the fatty parts of the pork are very commonly used in many dishes, it is surprisingly how Vietnamese people balance them with sourness and at the end they are almost imperceptible. Therefore the pairing with champagne is relatively simple, especially with champagnes with slightly higher dosage and body. Duck or oily fish are highly appreciated with Rosé, Vintage or Blanc de Noirs that have enough acidity to clean the palate and the right intensity to not get overpowered by the dish.
• Weight/Intensity: Our advice is to look for similar intensity in flavour for the pair food and wine. Both Champagne and Vietnamese cuisine are considered as light so there is not general issues with the weight. For relatively heavier food is better to choose Vintage champagne or Balnc de Noirs that will show more body. Sometimes fried food can seem heavy but the combination of acidity and bubbles in the wine clean perfectly the palate. 
• Herbaceous/Vegetal component: Everywhere in Vietnam, fresh herbs and vegetables, are served as a side dish. Certain herbs can create surprisingly good matches by enhancing the organoleptic profile of the wine.

This research shows that there is definitely an affinity between champagne and Vietnamese cuisine. The established guidelines should contribute to the successful promotion of Champagne wines in the country. To a greater extent, they will strengthen the general recognition of champagne as a wine for the gastronomy.

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