Using Design to Help People Learn
Design Principles
When we talk about design principles, we are often content agnostic. We are talking about form and structure. A principle is beautiful because of its universality in application.
In this article, I will talk about some principles that apply to helping people experience learning in a positive way by being mindful that learning is a process and not just the provision of information.
People interact with information differently, and how the information is presented, worked with, explained and connected are all essential parts of the process. These aspects are improved by deliberate design.
The design principles here are some of my favourites and do not necessarily represent a definitive list. The examples are also relatively brief, so we can cover as many as possible. A few Google searches should reward you richly if you are interested in any specific ones.
I will talk about each principle in alphabetical order, but you should understand that they are applicable in different ways, and other groupings might be useful to you. As you read along, see how you would group them, and let me know in the comments. This sort of re-grouping technique is called Chunking, and with it, you have already started applying the principles!
Accessibility
Learning materials should be designed to be usable by as many people as possible without modification.
Example: PowerPoint that covers multiple unit standards.
1)??????? Poor example - All of the content jammed in there – serves a purpose but isn’t usable without modification.
2)? ? ? ?A better approach?-? is to use the PowerPoint section feature to segregate content (repeated slides if necessary) so that modification is as simple as hiding the sections for units that are not relevant. If you know the tricks, this can be automated.
One product is useable across a broader range. It also makes updating easier, and who doesn’t want that?
Advanced Organizer – (This is an important one)
A technique used to help people understand new information based on what they already know.
Works well with linear presentations as it is dependent on prior organization. There are two general ways in which it is used:
1)??????? Expository advanced organizer – useful when the audience has little prior knowledge.
It starts with an exposition explaining definitions and concepts to build familiar knowledge and progresses into new information built on that exposition.
2)?????? Comparative advanced organizer – useful when the audience has prior knowledge
It starts from that prior knowledge as a base upon which new knowledge is formed.
What does this mean in practice?
New or introductory courses need an expository structure, and follow-up courses need to build on the knowledge already learned. This breaks down when we structure advanced courses with newbies included.
Problem: Those who have the knowledge are bored during the Expository structured content, and those newbies are left behind during Comparatively structured courses.
Solution: Prevent the mix of new and advancing learners to separately structured courses. This implies a strict hierarchy in the subject matter.
Biophilia Effect
Natural environments and imagery reduce stress and enhance focus.
This is an option for the learning environment design to include plants and wall art in natural tones and natural lighting conditions. Open windows for good airflow.
Naturally, students do much better when they are less stressed and can focus easily.
Chunking
Chunking is a technique of combining information into manageable “chunks” so that information is easier to remember.
This is related to the Advanced Organizer technique. Grouping familiar and unfamiliar terms together helps the learner retain new information.
This is especially topical for online learning and digital platforms, as this chunking can make things easier to navigate or find. Think of menu groups or content categories based on shared attributes.
In the classroom, this translates into learning blocks. Sections of content that build on each other. This is an Advanced Organizer but for local sections rather than whole subjects.
We do this naturally with phone numbers, so why not learning content?
Classical Conditioning
This is a technique of attaching an unconscious response to a stimulus.
Marketing departments and governments are exceptional at conditioning people.
Most people love bacon only because of marketing this previously unsellable part of the pig as a delicious breakfast meat. Let’s never go back.
Governments currently call this “messaging” or “defining the narrative” which, ironically, is reconditioning what used to be called propaganda.
There are literally thousands of examples of Classical Conditioning used on populations. But we care about learners.
Shock, fear or surprise are good emotional anchors for important points, especially regarding safety.
I use conditioning in the form or repetition of a simple point with students.
An unlocked carabiner is rated to NOTHING.
Despite the actual rating, (and it does have one) an unlocked carabiner is susceptible to a condition called rollout, and this can be achieved with the power of my pinky finger.
After that demonstration, I reinforced my point by repeating it regularly and hyping my hunt for unlocked carabiners with celebrations and noise when I find one. It's always jovial, and this key safety point is driven home. "Catching them" is an emotional trigger that reinforces the fact because of the previously made connections, and they are safer for it.
There are so many other ways to use classical conditioning and many more response types.
What does the smell of freshly baked bread do to you? Or the imagery of a cool beverage being poured. Go on, imagine it. Salivating yet? You are conditioned to.
We can apply this to our children, too, although Operant Conditioning is more useful there.
What techniques can you employ to provoke an unconscious response to a key piece of information that you want to reinforce?
Comparison
This is a powerful technique for illustrating relationships and patterns by comparing them in a controlled way.
This is perfect for translating data into graphics.
There are 3 types of comparison.
1)??????? Apples to apples – comparing using common measures and units. This method is prone to error if the variables are not collected consistently. (usually displayed on the same chart)
2)?????? Single Context – comparing around an attribute for subtle patterns’ (usually presented as separate graphs but in close proximity)
3)??????? Benchmarks – comparing to a known and defined system.
To help learners, the comparison can give context to a variable.
For example, fall distances vs. how far you can fall in 1s.
Here, we have a comparison of distance versus time. While it is commonly understood that a larger fall will result in a larger injury, it is often not appreciated how little time it takes to fall a large distance. The same applies to potential energy and the subsequent force applied to the body.
If you had a guess, the answer is that you can fall nearly 5m in 1 second. Surprised? Most people are.
Not controlling variables when making comparisons leads to poor performance, and this is particularly topical in New Zealand as a lot of the newer legislation is based on a task force report that was deeply flawed in its use of comparisons. You’ve heard of New Zealand’s poor performance compared to the rest of the world. They didn’t compare apples to apples.
For more information, I have a LinkedIn article that makes bedtime reading perfect unless you are really into safety management.
Depth of Processing
The deeper you think about something, the better it is retained.
This is about activating memory.
It is a deep and fascinating topic, but to quickly summarize, we need to engage students in a deeper level of thought and association with the material.
Some methods I use:
1)??????? QUESTIONS – This is important as it prompts immediate recall of the information you just presented. The back and forth is kind of a keystone to the whole deal. Have summary slides that give the presenter a checklist to ground this exchange.
I often direct questions. It's uncomfortable for everyone at the start, but as they learn and trust you to handle the query, we become an open and trusting team. This is excellent for depth of processing.
2)?????? Pictures – our brain processes imagery differently than text. A well-designed image or graphic will illicit recall through the words but also through the colour palette, visual interest, and unconscious feelings when presented.
It also helps with focus as everybody will try to process an image as it is novel and interesting, but not everyone will read a text block. Associations promote recall, and the more associations you can elicit, the better the recall.
3)??????? Personal interactions – One-on-one is more engaging as they have your complete attention and can’t be passive. It is also empowering for the students as they can freely explore a topic they were unsure about.
I always try to identify the quiet students and squeeze in a bit of one-on-one interactions and make time for students after a class if they want to “go over” anything.
Exposure Effect
Repeated exposure increases the likability of a stimulus.
Repeatedly asking questions and handling the responses respectfully builds the likability of the exercise. This, in turn, promotes Depth of Processing, and this leads to enjoyment as they leave the course feeling cognitively nourished.
It is also related to Classical Conditioning, as repeated exposure to the correct way of doing things leads to proficiency, which leads to enjoyment. The conditioning and exposure were merely the road to that destination.
Quiet and passive students miss out on this, so I am deliberately encouraging quiet and passive students, but only up to a point.
You all will have had those students who just are not interested in being there, no matter what you do. Hopefully the engaging atmosphere around them drags them into the knowledge party.
Forgiveness
Forgiveness is about fault tolerance and error handling.
This is really important in digital designs but also applies to our assessment material's design.
To maximize the pass rate, the design of assessment questions needs serious focus. The principle of Forgiveness comes in here because by narrowing the focus of the question, we can minimize wrong answers based on student interpretation of the question.
For example: in a heights assessments we have a “define the following” type of question. One of those definitions is “free fall”.
Now, the question asks to define free fall; which is falling under the full force of gravity unimpeded.
However, that answer is wrong according to the intent of the question. The answer's intended response is the definition of Free Fall Arrest, which is “a technique where free fall is possible greater than 600mm but less than 2m”.
The question can lead students to the wrong answer by being poorly designed. There are a lot of questions in assessments that would benefit from rewording so they are more transparent on their intent.
There are other areas where?Forgiveness?is applicable, for example, PPE that fails safe, training environments that minimize injuries etc.
In another LinkedIn article I talk about a safety process I call decision funneling. These are external constraints that restrict people through particular paths.
This increases safety or removes it depending on how it is implemented. A company that has expectations of work in all weather will restrict safety decisions to those excluding weather, for example. Alternatively, supervision requirements will limit decisions to only those approved by the supervisor.
Where could you apply this type of error to minimize the design process?
Immersion
It is the state of mental focus so intense that general awareness is lost and usually results in a feeling of joy and satisfaction.
Also known as zen, or “being in the zone”. How is this encouraged in design?
It comes down to a balance.
Undertaxed people become bored and disruptive. Overtaxed people become stressed and frustrated.
So, the answer is finding the right balance to keep people engaged.
Some options include creating:
·?????? Challenges that can be overcome (Performance Load)
·?????? Calm environments with minimal distractions (Biophilia Effect)
·?????? Clearly defined goals and objectives (Shaping)
·?????? Immediate feedback (Depth of Processing)
Like the structure set out in the Advanced Organizer section, balancing student level is the key here and is achieved by designing course structures and content that is in the right “zone” for your students.
The more students in that zone, the better the outcome for them.
Interference Effects
An effect where mental processing is made slower and less accurate by competing mental processes.
This is the inverse of Immersion.
There are four identified types of interference:
1)??????? Stroop Interference – irrelevant aspects of a stimulus interfere with relevant aspects.
This can happen when filler content is added to the material and can clutter focus. Too many attributes can cause you to remember the unimportant ones over the important ones.
2)?????? Garner Interference -irrelevant variations if a stimulus interferes with relevant aspects.
This can happen with too many examples given and creates dissonance as to where focus should be directed.
3)??????? Proactive Interference -existing memories interfere with new learning.
This is common when people have previous conflicting learning experiences and require new foundational knowledge to overcome. and Expository Advances Organiser approach may be beneficial here to ground understanding to a new baseline.
4)?????? Retroactive Interference – where learning interferes with existing memories,
This is common when new information is intentionally incorrect.
For example: in assessment questions phrased in the alternate. This is a really common issue with assessment questions where we are asking students to evaluate a false statement. When they go away, the false statement and true statement are in conflict as both hold equal weight in memory. This leads to confusion over the truth as each was a new piece of information introduced at about the same time.
A better approach would be to use the assessment to reinforce the material and avoid alternately posed or double-negative questions.
Some of this is with the student, some with the presenter and some with the materials. One way I look to improve content is by being open with myself about when I experience these types of interference while studying/reviewing the material. If you are experiencing it, chances are, the students are too.
The idea is to design the learning experience to be clearly defined, grouped sensibly, follow a logical path, be concise and focused and build on previous knowledge (either known or previously presented).
Inverted Pyramid
The Inverted Pyramid is an information ordering approach where critical information is presented first, and elaborative material is presented after.?
It resembles Advanced Organizer and Chunking techniques, where presentation order aids or detracts from learning.
So you may use?Advanced Organiser?to structure content,?Chunking?to break it down, and the?Inverted Pyramid?approach to decide the theme of the chunks.
This approach works because information presented early is usually remembered more readily. You can use the later content to expand the topic and reinforce its importance (Exposure Effect). This acts as a Classical Conditioning method where students are primed to focus on the new topic and can assist with Immersion and Depth of Processing.
Layering
Layering is the process of managing complexity by organizing information into groups that reinforce relationships.
There are two broad types, two or three-dimensional:
1)? ? ? ? 2D Linear?– information is presented from one point to another.
PowerPoint is a linear layering system that allows information to be broken down. It is important to manage the groupings using the other methods.
2)?????? 3D Non-Linear – is broken into two additional groups.
Hierarchical -where information is managed in strands.
Organization charts break down enterprise complexity into departments and teams, or relational databases use tables to group information in a hierarchy.
Web - where information is organized based on shared attributes rather than positional hierarchy.
Websites use hyperlinks to navigate pages, and NoSQL databases use Key:Attribute pairs to link information. This is how Google does it because it's massively scalable.
While this seems relevant to broader systems of information storage rather than presentation, we are still dealing with complex topics and how you physically layer the topics in the presentation can aid recall a make explicit the relationships between the information.
For example, you could create a summary slide that layers the topics in a way that presents their relationship, importance or position in an information space using the Comparison design principle.
Which Layering technique best fits the information you want to present?
Legibility
This is the visual clarity of text.
This can be a problem in some presentations but it is especially apparent in the small type learners guides.
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There are five attributes that determine text clarity.
1)??????? Size – for print 9-12 pt text but for lower resolution displays (projectors) a larger sizes is recommended.
2)? ? ? ?Typeface?– This is mostly an aesthetic choice, but sentence case should be used in text blocks, and antialiasing may improve legibility on low-resolution displays.
AVOID cursive and monospaced fonts.
3)??????? Contrast -Dark text on a light background or vice versa. The contrast difference should be at least 70%. Colour has a marginal effect as long as contrast requirements are met.
AVOID Patterned or textured backgrounds.
4)?????? Text blocks -There is no difference between justified or unjustified text. About 10- 12 words per line is recommended for maximum legibility.
5)?????? Spacing – If you have the space, give the text some breathing room. Line height is important for text boxes, but even more space should be given to lists. Don’t put too much text on the page, and keep plenty of white space. Proportionally spaced fonts are preferred over monospaced fonts for legibility.
Mnemonic Device
A Mnemonic Device is a way of reorganizing information to make it easier to remember.
It uses imagery or words to associate unfamiliar information with information already in memory. It is basically a short-hand method of remembering more complex information.
There are four methods of applying mnemonic devices:
1)??????? First Letter – This is probably what you think of when thinking about mnemonic devices and using the first letter to create a word or phase or acronym.
E.C.C.E for the new Reg 25 hierarchy of control of Dropped Objects.
Eliminate, Contain, Control, Exclude
2)?????? Keyword – link to a word or bridging image.
Thumb and pinky spread is a good way to estimate 120°
Fingers between the horizon and bottom sun at arms length estimate time to sunset, where each finger is approximately 15min to sunset.
3)??????? Rhyme – a rhyme that helps you remember.
Top of the T goes before me.
4)?????? Feature/Name -This is common on logos where the abstract of the design helps to recall the name or features.
If you had a industrial training company called Vertical Horizonz and you wanted a logo that implied elevation and distant horizons with an industrial theme, you might choose a logo that invokes those feelings with a scaffolding type (industrial and elevated) primary logo with an isometric grid background implying distance.
There are a lot of ways Mnemonics can help students recall.
Operant Conditioning
It is a method of modifying behaviour by reinforcing desired behaviours and ignoring or punishing undesired behaviours.
Similar to Classical Conditioning but less subtle.
This is a big design principle in adversarial AI development but that’s another topic entirely.
The entire goal of training is to reinforce the correct method of doing things. This is achieved by reinforcing all of the behaviours associated with good learning:
1)??????? Freedom to ask questions
2)?????? Increasing exposure and practice
3)??????? Allowing for focus
4)?????? Allowing students to fail gracefully.
My favourite responses are, “If we knew it all already, we wouldn’t be training.” or “This is why we practice”.
At the same time, we must redirect poor learner behaviour by:
1)???????Engaging passive students
2)?????? Not reward disruption with attention or engagement
3)???????Allowing time for processing
4)?????? Finding out what interests them.
Students that are undertaxed and bored can be disruptive, but they can be elevated to a position of responsibility and help coach the overtaxed. (Immersion Principle). This way the extra work helps the undertaxed student engage (teaching is excellent learning) and the overwhelmed student gains additional assistance.
However, we achieve it;?Operant Conditioning?is a valuable method for maintaining a conducive learning environment.
Performance Load
The greater the effort required to accomplish a task, the less likely it will be accomplished successfully.
This is why it is essential to structure the course in achievable chunks and definable sets and build from there.? There is plenty of scope for managing the?Performance Load?on students, from how classes are structured and presented to how they are handled in the classroom.
This also applies to efforts to design the core systems, so it is very relevant to management.
“Create this big thing” is unlikely to result in the success of the big thing. However, if the first thing created was an outline, and the smaller, more focused components were given to a working group, chances are good that it can be managed to a successful completion.
This is related to another design principle that isn’t here as its not related to learning but I will mention the gist of it because it is related to managing performance load.
1)??????? Committee type working groups are better for quality output.
2)?????? Authority lead groups are better for time-bound output.
Picture Superiority Effect
Pictures are remembered better than words.
As with the Depth of Processing principle, there is more sensory information in a picture, and this is preferential to text.
If you can create infographics for the same information, you will have interest and attention, translating to better student outcomes.
Progressive Disclosure
It is a way of managing information complexity where only the necessary information is displayed at any given time.
Progressive Disclosure is similar to Layering.
While Layering is organizing complexity through geometry, Progressive Disclosure organizes complexity over time.
Progressive Disclosure is a solution to some of the Interference Effects by separating, over time, the different attributes or variations of a topic.
It also works more broadly. Magazines and online publications spread their editorial calendar over a year, allowing a time to focus on each topic.
With training, Progressive Disclosure works together with the Advanced Organizer, Inverted Pyramid and Chunking principles to structure content by
·?????? Scope
·?????? Context
·?????? Importance
·?????? Time.
Readability
The degree to which written work can be understood.
This is quite a complex topic to summarize, but generally, the lower the reading level of the text, the easier it is to be understood. This also applies to spells cast in the corporate tongue, to which I mean overly formal and bureaucratic.
A quick summary follows, and generally, smaller/simpler wins:
1)???????Word length.
2)?????? Word commonality.
3)???????Sentence length.
4)?????? Number of clauses in a sentence.
5)?????? Number of syllabi in a sentence.
Omit unnecessary words and punctuation, use active voice unless the emphasis is on the message, not the messenger, and then use passive voice.
Generally, save the flowery language for entertainment. For business and educational communication, simple, clear, and direct is best.
Recognition over Recall
Memory for recognizing things is better than memory for recalling things.
This is the reason for Picture Superiority and choosing imagery over text to aid Depth of Processing.
A well-designed course is one with graphical interest relevant to the content.
Rosetta Stone
This design principle is a communication technique for conveying novel information using elements of shared understanding.
I don’t know that this is relevant to learning, but it is really interesting.
Basically, embedding the key to understanding the material within the material.
Above is the plaque sent out on the Pioneer 10/11 Spacecraft in 1972/3. Without using a single word, it sets a common understanding with pictograms and symbology so the aliens can decipher it.
I strongly recommend that you go to the Wikipedia page and read about it.
Serial Positioning Effects’
Is a phenomenon where items at the beginning and end of lists are better recalled than items in the middle of the list.
As with the Inverted Pyramid where critical information is presented first, ensure the most important points are at the beginning and end of a list if you want them remembered.
Shaping
Shaping is another behaviour modification technique where you teach a desired behaviour by reinforcing increasingly accurate approximations of the behaviour.
This is easily seen in video game tutorials that shape your behaviour and control over the virtual world through increasingly complex scenarios.
Similarly, the design of practical exercises should build towards a goal where earlier exercises reinforce the conduct required in the later exercises. It is the practical variant of the Advanced Organizer and Chunking principles.
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
The signal-to-noise ratio is the ratio of relevant to irrelevant information on display.
In good design, the highest possible signal-to-noise ratio is desired. This is also related to Interference Effects and Immersion principle to get the best possible learning environment.
This means each slide in a presentation should be focused on its key point. You can use?Progressive Disclosure?and the?Inverted Pyramid?with slide animation or follow-up slides to emphasise supplementary information.
Don’t digress if you want a high Depth of Processing.
Stickiness
A method to radically increase recognition and recall of an idea.
Sticky ideas contain six variables
1)???????Simplicity – expressed simply without sacrificing depth
2)?????? Surprise - surprise courts attention, attention aids recall
3)???????Concreteness – robust ideas that are specific and expressed in plain language
4)?????? Credibility - the idea is believable and from a trusted source
5)?????? Emotion – elicits an emotional reaction (Classical Conditioning)
6)?????? Story -The idea expressed in a story dramatically increases attention and recall
Keep information concise and profound.
One of the ideas that I try to make sticky is the fact that working at height is dangerous at any height. It's often heard but not understood.
Here is an example:
I establish the definition of working at height and immediately use a comparison of Fall distance over time to drive home that small falls are dangerous. Countering assumptions.
A chart of a fall over 1 second creates surprise at how far you can fall in such a short time and how much force you could generate.
I have their attention. I will go on to explain techniques.
There are four techniques for working at height.
A simple statement that I talk the students through using Advanced Organiser, Layering and Inverted Pyramid techniques.
The techniques are
1)??????? Restraint Technique (preferred) A fall is not possible.
2)?????? Work-positioning – using the equipment for support
3)??????? Limited Free Fall – a fall not more than 600mm
4)?????? Free Fall Arrest -? A fall of more than 600mm but less than 2m
At this point, I am explaining the potential forces generated at a 2m fall, and this leads to the need for shock absorption within the system. (the forces are massive)
This is explained and followed by constant and immediate questioning from me, as well as defining the scope (4) at the beginning to help organize these techniques in the student's minds.
The ideas are concrete well defined using simple language
My openness and ability to answer questions establish me as a credible source, as well as the authority placed upon me as a trainer.
At the end of the section I do another Q&A but I throw in a question that wasn’t in the slides
What technique is it where you fall over 2m?
I ask around searching for a legitimate answer, encouraging guesses and recall. When I have their attention, I drop the surprise and illicit the emotional response I am after. (Classical Conditioning)
DYING. The technique is called Dying,
The response is usually laughter and relief and I can follow it up with empathy; “please don’t use this technique . . . btw, which technique is best?”.
We develop the rapport and move on with similar reinforcement throughout the course, hopefully leading to a very sticky idea.
Where could you implement your sticky ideas?
Story Telling
A method of creating imagery, emotions and understanding of events through the interaction of the storyteller and their audience.
I’m still working on my stories, but a colleague, Richard Munyard, has a good story for explaining risk assessment and controls. The topic is pretty dull for students but Richards story is engaging, interactive, simple and based on conditions very familiar to most people.
It's not my place to tell his story, but it is a good example.
Think about how you can deliver your content or explanations as a story or journey, and it will glue all the pieces together. If you don’t believe me about the power of stories, google “memory palace”. You can thank me later.
Summary
A lot of research in memory always comes back to connecting new information with known information. This is the core of most of these techniques. It's also the reason why students get behind when they miss or are slow to comprehend topics. The teacher moves on, and everything from that point on has no connection. It may as well be words floating in the ether.
If you read this far, thank you.
This is just a way for me to share some design knowledge, and as I mentioned the Operant Conditioning section, teaching is excellent learning. Being able to explain them helps me internalise these principles better and could be valuable to a broader audience.
A reminder of the principles.