Unmanned Systems in a Congested and Contested Electromagnetic Spectrum: Transforming Modern Armed Forces' Concepts of Operations

Abstract:

Unmanned Systems in a Congested and Contested Electromagnetic Spectrum: Transforming Modern Armed Forces' Concepts of Operations

The proliferation of unmanned systems, such as drones and robotic combat vehicles, has revolutionized modern warfare, providing unprecedented capabilities in intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance (ISR), and combat operations. However, the increasing reliance on unmanned systems introduces significant challenges in the congested and contested electromagnetic spectrum (EMS). This essay examines the impact of unmanned systems on the concept of operations (CONOPS) for modern armed forces, addressing issues such as jamming, interception, interference, radio frequency (RF) propagation, and the growing communications needs driven by digitalization. Insights from recent conflicts, notably the Russian-Ukrainian war, underscore these challenges. The essay concludes by discussing the implications for CONOPS and the importance of adapting strategies to navigate the complexities of the modern battlefield.

Introduction

The proliferation of unmanned systems, such as drones and robotic combat vehicles, has revolutionized modern warfare, offering unprecedented capabilities in intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance (ISR), and combat operations. Although many of these systems are still in the process of reaching higher maturity levels, the increasing reliance on unmanned systems introduces significant challenges in the congested and contested electromagnetic spectrum (EMS). This essay explores the impact of unmanned systems on the concept of operations (CONOPS) for modern armed forces, considering issues like jamming, interception, interference, radio frequency (RF) propagation, and the growing communications needs driven by digitalization, with references to recent conflicts such as the Russian-Ukrainian war.

The Electromagnetic Spectrum and Modern Warfare

The EMS is a critical, yet often misunderstood, battlefield in modern warfare, encompassing all frequencies of electromagnetic radiation, terrestrial and extra-terrestrial, from radio waves to gamma rays. Effective use of the EMS is essential for command, control, communication, navigation, and ISR, collectively referred to in military terms as C4ISR. With the increasing number of devices and systems operating within this spectrum, congestion and potential conflicts over frequency allocation become more prevalent, complicating military operations.

Unmanned Systems: Advantages and Dependencies

Unmanned systems offer several advantages:

• Reduced Risk to Personnel (Force Protection): They can perform hazardous tasks without endangering human lives.
• Extended Operational Reach (Sustainment, Maneuver, Firepower): They can operate in environments that are otherwise inaccessible or too dangerous for manned systems.
• Persistent Surveillance (Intelligence): They provide continuous monitoring capabilities, enhancing situational awareness of commanders and helping to achieve a better shared common understanding.

However, these systems are heavily reliant on the EMS for command and control, data transmissions, and navigation, making them vulnerable to spectrum-related challenges. In the case of the Russian-Ukraine conflict it is observed that the Forward Line of Own Troops (FLOT) is completely saturated with airborne sensor, making the battlefield so transparent, that it is almost impossible to covertly move with larger formations, even in the rear area.

Challenges in a Congested and Contested Electromagnetic Spectrum

Jamming, Spoofing and Electronic Warfare

Jamming and Spoofing is a significant threat in the EMS, where adversaries attempt to disrupt the communication, command, and control of unmanned systems. Effective jamming or spoofing can render unmanned systems inoperative by blocking or interfering with the signals they rely on. However, an adversary using jamming as a technique is also denied the ability to operate in that specific range of the spectrum. The Russian-Ukrainian war has highlighted the potency of electronic warfare, with both sides deploying sophisticated and sometimes primitive jamming techniques to disrupt each other's drone operations. To counteract this, armed forces must develop resilient communication systems that can operate in degraded conditions, using technologies such as frequency hopping (rapidly switching frequencies to avoid jamming) and spread spectrum (spreading the signal over a wider bandwidth to make it harder to jam). These types of radios and communication systems have been around for a long time but combining frequency hop techniques with wideband spread as well as time-division multiplexing (TDM) in which all bands are utilized to their maximum, even in idle time, gives an extra edge. These types of radio communication systems are not yet on the market, primarily due to consumer disinterest in transmitting on all frequencies without sending meaningful data, except for security purposes, which is of special interest to the armed forces.

Interception and Cybersecurity

Interception of communications between unmanned systems and their operators poses a critical security risk. The downside of these legacy communication systems is that utilizing frequency hopping draws a lot of unwanted attention. While resilience in communications and increased information security through encryption are achieved via frequency hopping, it comes at the cost of personnel security. Adversaries can gather intelligence or even take control of unmanned systems. Even if heavy encryption is employed, it doesn’t prevent adversaries from conducting temporal analysis to map space and time factors, helping them to slowly build a picture that could predict future actions. Additionally, adversaries can capture in-phase and quadrature (I&Q) recordings to later analyze what type of transmission was being sent to use that information as an early warning. The Russian-Ukrainian conflict has seen instances of drones being hacked and repurposed. Ensuring secure communication channels through encryption and robust authentication mechanisms is essential to prevent unauthorized access and safeguard operational integrity. Integrating sound information security and cybersecurity measures into the design of such systems as well as into the CONOPS with unmanned systems is a vital matter.

RF Propagation and Interference

RF propagation characteristics affect the performance and reliability of unmanned systems. Terrain, vegetation, weather, and other environmental factors can influence signal strength and quality. Additionally, interference from other electronic devices and systems can degrade performance. Understanding RF propagation and employing techniques like adaptive modulation (adjusting the signal based on current conditions) can enhance the reliability of communications in diverse environments.

When employing these measures, it is also important to use RF propagation simulation and RF planning tools, such as CloudRF running on Soothsayer, integrated into the Tactical Assault Kit (TAK). Accurate geographic mapping with all nodes and their corresponding transmit (Tx) and receive (Rx) parameters, including Bit Error Rates (BER), is crucial. These tools provide detailed models of how RF signals propagate in different environments, allowing for better planning and optimization of communication networks. Accurate mapping ensures that all nodes in the network are correctly positioned to maintain optimal communication links, minimizing the risk of signal degradation or loss.

Increasing Congestion and Frequency Allocation

As more devices operate within the EMS, frequency congestion becomes a pressing issue. The allocation of frequency bands for military and civilian use must be managed carefully to prevent conflicts and ensure efficient utilization of the spectrum. Innovations in dynamic spectrum allocation (systems that adjust frequency use based on real-time demand) and cognitive radio technologies (radios that can automatically find the best available frequencies) can help mitigate congestion. The Ukrainian military, for instance, has adapted its frequency management practices to deal with the intense EMS congestion in contested areas.

Growing Communications Needs and Digitalization

The digitalization of the battlefield has exponentially increased the demand for reliable and high-capacity communications. Unmanned systems generate vast amounts of data that need to be transmitted, processed, and analyzed in real-time. This requires robust network infrastructure and advanced data management solutions. Technologies like 5G and satellite communications are pivotal in meeting these growing demands, providing high-speed and low-latency connectivity. In the context of the Russian-Ukrainian war, the use of Starlink satellites has provided crucial communication links for Ukrainian forces, demonstrating the importance of advanced communication technologies in modern conflicts.

Adopting a Living Off the Land Strategy for Communications

In contested and congested EMS environments, adopting a "Living Off the Land" (LOTL) strategy for communications can enhance operational resilience. This approach involves leveraging existing commercial and civilian communication infrastructures and protocols, such as Radio over Internet Protocol (RoIP) and open network connections using TCP/IP protocol. By integrating military communication systems with these widely available technologies, armed forces can achieve more flexible and resilient communications.

Importance of LOTL Strategy:

• Redundancy and Resilience: Using commercial communication networks provides additional layers of redundancy. If military-specific communication channels are compromised or congested, operations can seamlessly switch to commercial networks.
• Cost-Effectiveness: Leveraging existing infrastructure reduces the need for developing and deploying specialized military communication systems, which can be costly and time-consuming.
• Interoperability: Integrating RoIP and TCP/IP protocols with military systems enhances interoperability with allied forces and civilian agencies, facilitating coordinated efforts in joint operations and disaster response scenarios.
• Reduced Detection Risk: Utilizing commercial communication networks can make it harder for adversaries to detect and target military communications, as the signals blend in with civilian traffic.

Challenges and Solutions

Current military communication systems often do not seamlessly work with RoIP or open network connections using TCP/IP protocol. To address this, several measures can be implemented:

• Standardization: Developing standardized interfaces and protocols that allow military systems to easily connect to commercial networks.
• Security Enhancements: Implementing robust encryption and authentication mechanisms to secure communications over commercial networks.
• Training and Doctrine: Training personnel to effectively use commercial communication networks and incorporating LOTL strategies into military doctrines.

Current Trends and Future Technological Innovations

Artificial Intelligence and Autonomous Operations

Apart from the legal and ethical implications and limitations, Artificial intelligence (AI) is set to play a crucial role in the future of unmanned systems. AI can enable autonomous operations, reducing the reliance on continuous human control and communication. Autonomous systems can make real-time decisions based on sensor data, enhancing their effectiveness and reducing vulnerability to jamming and interception. The ongoing conflict in Ukraine has seen the deployment of AI-powered drones capable of autonomous operations, highlighting their growing importance. However, AI is not going to solve every problem. AI might be able to outperform humans on specific tasks, but fail to do better in other, more generic and ambiguous tasks. Sometimes even in a single task not able to outperform humans such as in the case of object detection and classification. For example, the human eye staring at a video camera feed only needs a couple of pixels to detect an object in the periphery for which AI needs at least the double amount, therefor AI guided unmanned systems will only be able to detect and classify objects at half the distance on which humans can preserve and understand. Also, another consideration is, what is the AI supposed to do when sensor data appears to be corrupted? How should it mitigate degradation in the quality and the integrity of data? AI has its limitations and can also be fooled or can hallucinate in some cases. Therefor implementing AI into operating an unmanned system must be done with great vigilance and responsibility.

Quantum Communications, Encryption and Navigation

Quantum communications and quantum encryption are often conflated, but they serve different purposes within the realm of secure communication. Quantum communications encompass the use of quantum mechanics to transmit data, potentially enabling new forms of secure and ultra-fast information transfer. One aspect of quantum communications is Quantum Key Distribution (QKD), which is specifically focused on encryption.

• Quantum Communications: This involves the broader use of quantum principles to transmit information. For example, quantum entanglement can be used to instantly share information between particles regardless of distance, which could revolutionize the speed and security of communications networks.
• Quantum Encryption: A subset of quantum communications, quantum encryption uses QKD to create secure encryption keys that cannot be intercepted without detection. QKD relies on the principles of quantum mechanics to ensure that any attempt to eavesdrop on the key exchange process is immediately apparent, thus providing theoretically unbreakable encryption.
• Quantum Navigation: One of the most promising aspects of quantum navigation is the development of quantum sensors, which leverage the principles of quantum mechanics to measure physical quantities with exceptional sensitivity. Combined with Quantum Clocks, jamming of spoofing GPS signals will be rendered ineffective.
• Quantum Clocks: quantum technologies such as atomic clocks could enhance the accuracy of timing systems, which are crucial for satellite-based navigation systems like GPS. By improving the precision of timing measurements, quantum clocks could enable more accurate positioning and navigation over long distances.

While still in the experimental stage, quantum technologies hold the potential to revolutionize secure communications and navigation for unmanned systems, offering unprecedented levels of security against interception and hacking.

Mobile Ad-Hoc Mesh Networks and Decentralized Communications

Mobile Ad-Hoc Mesh Networking (MANET) represents an advanced form of mesh networking that is particularly suited to the dynamic and fluid nature of modern battlefield environments. MANETs consist of nodes that can freely move and organize themselves arbitrarily; the network's topology is dynamic and can change rapidly, providing:

• Resilience: MANETs reduce the risk of a single point of failure, making the network more robust against disruptions.
• Scalability: MANETs can easily scale to accommodate a large number of nodes, making them suitable for extensive military operations.
• Adaptability: The self-healing capabilities of MANETs allow the network to adapt to changes in topology and maintain functionality in the face of disruptions.

During the Russian-Ukrainian conflict, the use of decentralized communication networks, including MANETs, has been critical for maintaining operational continuity amid intense electronic warfare efforts.

Implications for the Concept of Operations (CONOPS)

As unmanned systems become increasingly integrated into modern armed forces within congested and contested EMS environments, it necessitates a comprehensive reevaluation of CONOPS. This reevaluation should encompass the following key aspects:

• Flexible and Adaptive Strategies: Armed forces must develop flexible strategies that can adapt to rapidly changing EMS conditions. This includes pre-planned responses to jamming and interference as well as employing Emissions Control (EMCON) principals making it necessary to incorporate EMCON measures into the design of future communications systems. Even in the planning phase of a mission, RF planning and simulation can help reduce or over overcome connectivity problems without these problems ever occur. RF planning and propagation simulation tools, such as CloudRF running on Soothsayer, integrable with TAK, make it possible to run your specific mission scenarios to optimize for your commander's communication requirements and means.
• Training and Doctrine Development: Personnel must be trained to operate in spectrum-contested environments, understanding the capabilities and limitations of unmanned systems. Doctrine must evolve to incorporate the unique aspects of unmanned operations. Commanders and field personnel must learn and understand that information security does not always equal to personnel security. Therefor future commanders and operators must understand that these two can be completely opposite to each other. Russian-Ukraine conflict has proven that super heavily encrypted, frequency hopping communications can draw unwanted attention, as well as using no security measures at all can get you killed as well. Employing principles as multiband-path lines of communication, TDM within these multi bands and foremost having the flexibility to apply Living-off-the-Land utilizing whatever infrastructure that is available and running your comms over these unsecured lines, safely and securely is going to be important capability. Recent and ongoing conflict between Russia and Ukraine it is observed that radio comms system does not allow this level of open collaboration, forcing commanders in the field to apply the wrong tactics, resulting in losses.
• Interagency and International Collaboration: Effective EMS management requires collaboration between military, civilian, and international entities to ensure coordinated spectrum use and conflict resolution. Commanders need to take into account that their systems might not work the same in an operational environment as the allocated frequencies abroad can be different then at home and sometimes completely prohibited to use. Therefor making it necessary to have the ability to switch between bands, preferably seamlessly or in some cases even use multiple bands. Employing multiple bands will inevitably result in conflicts on the EM spectrum, making effective Spectrum Management even more important to deconflict requirements with interagency partners, joint, combined operations partners as well as internation collaboration partners in cases such as Civil-Military Cooperation (CiMiC) between Armed Forces and Local NGO's.

In consideration of the prevailing challenges, it's crucial to incorporate the imperative of layered and distributed air defense for improving Force Protection of deployed units against cheap areal threats such as FPV drones. The ubiquity of FPV drones, now also incorporating object recognition based terminal guidance against jamming, along the Forward Line of Own Troops (FLOT) in Ukraine has severely hindered movements with large units to the extent that tanks are rendered non-operational. Thus, there arises a significant question regarding the potential mitigation of drone dominance with significantly enhanced cost-effective distributed air defense capabilities.

Conclusion

As unmanned systems continue to proliferate on the battlefield, they are fundamentally reshaping the Concept of Operations (CONOPS) of modern armed forces. While these systems offer significant operational advantages, they also present intricate challenges within the increasingly congested and contested Electromagnetic Spectrum (EMS). Addressing issues such as jamming, interception, and interference, along with meeting the escalating communications demands driven by digitalization, is imperative for unlocking the full potential of unmanned systems.

Technological innovations such as AI, quantum communications, Mobile Ad-Hoc Mesh Networking (MANET), and the adoption of a "Living Off the Land" strategy for communications will undoubtedly play pivotal roles in overcoming these challenges. These advancements are essential for ensuring that modern armed forces can maintain operational effectiveness in the ever evolving and congested EMS landscape.

In addition, the prevalence of drones as 'poor man's precision-guided weapons,' and the lag in the development of anti-drone or countermeasures systems at a smaller scale have contributed to this perception. However, there will inevitably be a need for equilibrium in this dynamic, as the current situation is unsustainable. Only when the equilibrium is reached, tanks can start to be effective again in the frontlines.

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