Understanding Strategy & Role of Military in America

Strategy is a term that is widely used in business, politics, sports, and other fields, but where does it come from and what does it mean? In this article I will explore the origins of strategy, from its ancient roots in military thinking to its modern applications in various domains. I would also discover how military has roots in American politics since independence and who controls strategy in the times of crisis.

The word strategy derives from the Greek word "strategos", which means "general". However, the Greeks did not use this word to refer to the art or science of war, but rather to the title of a military commander or a civil official. The first works that discussed strategy as a concept were written by the Chinese during the period of 400 - 200 B.C. One of the most famous of these works is The Art of War by Sun Tzu, which is considered to be the best work on military strategy ever written. Sun Tzu's book contains principles and advice on how to win wars by using deception, intelligence, flexibility, and efficiency.

The Romans also contributed to the development of strategy by compiling collections of "strategems", which are tricks or ruses of war. One example of such a work is Strategemata by Frontius, which describes various examples of how generals and soldiers used cunning and surprise to defeat their enemies. The Romans also introduced the term "strategia" to refer to territories under the control of a strategos.

The modern meaning of strategy as the art or science of war emerged in the late 18th century, when Count Guibert, a French military thinker, introduced the term "La Strategique" in his book General Essay on Tactics. Guibert defined strategy as "the art of combining and applying all the means of war to achieve the objectives set by politics". He also distinguished between strategy and tactics, which he defined as "the art of executing operations on the battlefield". Guibert's ideas influenced other military theorists such as Carl von Clausewitz, who wrote On War, one of the most influential books on strategy in history. Clausewitz focused on two questions: What is war, and what purpose does it serve? He argued that war is "the continuation of politics by other means" and that the ultimate aim of war is to impose one's will on the enemy.

Strategy is not only relevant for military affairs, but also for other domains that involve competition and cooperation. In the 20th century, strategy became a popular topic in business, where it refers to "the determination of the basic long-term goals and objectives of an enterprise, and the adoption of courses of action and the allocation of resources necessary for carrying out these goals" (H. Igor Ansoff). Business strategy involves analyzing the external environment, identifying opportunities and threats, assessing one's strengths and weaknesses, choosing a competitive advantage, and implementing a plan to achieve one's goals. Strategy can also be applied to other fields such as politics, sports, games, education, health, and so on.

Strategy is therefore a complex and multifaceted concept that has evolved over time and across domains. It can be seen as both an art and a science, as both a theory and a practice. It can help us understand how people make decisions and achieve their objectives in various situations. Strategy is not only about winning or losing, but also about creating value and making a difference.

Military leadership and strategy are essential for the success of any armed force, whether in war or peace. Military leaders are responsible for planning, directing, and executing operations that achieve the objectives of their mission. They must also inspire, motivate, and develop their subordinates and peers, as well as coordinate with other branches of the military and civilian authorities. Military strategy is the art and science of employing military forces to achieve political goals. It involves analyzing the enemy's strengths and weaknesses, choosing the best course of action, and adapting to changing circumstances. Military strategy requires creativity, foresight, and flexibility, as well as a deep understanding of the operational environment and the principles of war.

The link between military leadership and politics in USA history is a complex and evolving one, shaped by constitutional principles, historical events, and changing circumstances. We will explore some of the key aspects of this relationship, and how it has influenced the conduct and outcomes of wars, as well as the civil-military balance in the American democracy.

One of the foundational elements of the civil-military relationship in the USA is the principle of civilian control of the military, enshrined in the Constitution. The president, as the commander-in-chief, has the ultimate authority over the military, and appoints the political heads of the military departments, such as the secretary of defense and the service secretaries. The Congress, as the representative of the people, has the power to declare war, raise and support armies, provide and maintain a navy, and make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces.

However, civilian control does not mean civilian micromanagement or interference in military affairs. The military leaders, such as the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the combatant commanders, have professional expertise and experience in military matters, and are expected to provide candid and independent advice to the civilian authorities, as well as to execute their orders faithfully and effectively. The military leaders also have a responsibility to uphold their oath to the Constitution, and to protect the values and interests of the nation.

The link between military leadership and politics has been tested and challenged by various wars throughout American history. In some cases, such as the American Civil War, military leaders played a decisive role in shaping the political outcome of the conflict. For example, Ulysses S. Grant, who led the Union army to victory over the Confederate forces, later became president and pursued a policy of Reconstruction in the South. Robert E. Lee, who commanded the Confederate army, was revered by many Southerners as a symbol of their lost cause and resisted federal efforts to reunify the nation.

In other cases, such as World War II, military leaders had to adapt to changing political circumstances and strategic objectives. For example, Dwight D. Eisenhower, who commanded the Allied forces in Europe, had to coordinate with multiple political leaders from different countries, such as Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Charles de Gaulle. He also had to balance competing interests and priorities among his subordinates, such as George S. Patton, Bernard Montgomery, and Omar Bradley.

In some cases, such as Vietnam War and Iraq War, military leaders faced difficulties in achieving political goals with limited or flawed military means. For example, William Westmoreland, who led the U.S. forces in Vietnam, pursued a strategy of attrition that failed to break the will of the enemy or secure popular support at home. He also clashed with civilian officials over troop levels and war aims. David Petraeus, who commanded the U.S. forces in Iraq during the surge period, implemented a counterinsurgency doctrine that improved security and stability in some areas but did not resolve the underlying political problems or ensure long-term success.

The relation between military leadership and politics has also been affected by the changing nature of warfare and society in the 21st century. The emergence of new threats, such as terrorism, cyberattacks, and hybrid warfare, has increased the demand for military involvement in various domains and regions. The advancement of technology, such as drones, artificial intelligence, and social media, has enhanced the capabilities but also increased the risks and challenges for military operations.

The link between military leadership and politics in the USA is a complex and controversial topic that has implications for the constitutional order, the democratic process, and the national security of the country. The military serves the Constitution through obedience to democratically elected civilian officials without regard for political party or partisan positions. However, this does not mean that the military is or should be apolitical. The military itself is an intensely political institution that operates in a highly politicized environment. Military leaders need to be able to engage on political issues with their troops and with the public in an appropriate and responsible manner, while avoiding partisanship, institutional endorsements, and electoral influence. The relationship between military and political leaders is especially critical in times of crisis and war, when strategic decisions require clear communication, mutual trust, and shared responsibility. The roles of senior military leadership and their civilian counterparts trace back to constitutional authorities as well as traditions established throughout American history. However, these roles are not static and may change over time due to various factors, such as the emergence of new threats, the evolution of civil-military culture, and the appointment of former generals as secretaries of defense. The challenge for both military and political leaders is to balance the need for effective cooperation with the respect for each other's autonomy and expertise.

According to various sources and records, 31 out of 45 US presidents have served in the military in some capacity, either as part of the Continental Army, the US Army, the US Army Reserves, the US Navy, the US Navy Reserves, the US Marine Corps, or the state militias. Here is a brief account of each president who served in the military and their rank:

George Washington (1789-1797): Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolution. He was later appointed as General of the Armies of the United States in 1799.?

Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809): Colonel and Commander of the Albemarle County Militia in Virginia during the American Revolution. He did not see any combat.?

James Madison (1809-1817): Colonel in the Virginia Militia during the American Revolution. He did not see any combat.?

James Monroe (1817-1825): Major in the Continental Army during the American Revolution. He was wounded at the Battle of Trenton and participated in several other battles.?

Andrew Jackson (1829-1837): Major General of the Tennessee Militia and later of the US Army during the War of 1812. He won several victories against the British and Native Americans, most notably at the Battle of New Orleans. He also fought in the Creek War and the First Seminole War. ?

William Henry Harrison (1841): Major General of the Kentucky Militia and later of the US Army during the War of 1812. He led troops at the Battle of Tippecanoe and the Battle of the Thames. He also fought in various Indian wars before becoming governor of Indiana Territory.?

John Tyler (1841-1845): Captain in the Virginia Militia during the War of 1812. He did not see any combat.?

James K. Polk (1845-1849): Colonel in the Tennessee Militia during the War of 1812. He did not see any combat.?

Zachary Taylor (1849-1850): Major General of the US Army during the Mexican-American War. He won several battles against Mexico, including Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, Monterrey, and Buena Vista. He also fought in various Indian wars before becoming president.?

Millard Fillmore (1850-1853): Major in the New York State Militia during the Civil War. He did not see any combat.?

Franklin Pierce (1853-1857): Brigadier General of volunteers during the Mexican-American War. He fought at Contreras, Churubusco, Molino del Rey, and Chapultepec. He was wounded at Churubusco and suffered from chronic pain afterwards.?

James Buchanan (1857-1861): Private in a Pennsylvania volunteer regiment during the War of 1812. He did not see any combat.

Abraham Lincoln (1861-1865): He served as a captain in the Illinois militia during the Black Hawk War of 1832, but did not see any combat.

Ulysses S. Grant (1869-1877): He was a career soldier who graduated from West Point and fought in the Mexican-American War. He rose to the rank of General of the Army during the Civil War and led the Union forces to victory. He was the first president to hold the rank of General of the Army.?

Rutherford B. Hayes (1877-1881): He volunteered for the Union army during the Civil War and was wounded several times. He reached the rank of brevet major general and received a Medal of Honor for his bravery at the Battle of Cedar Creek.?

James A. Garfield (1881): He also volunteered for the Union army during the Civil War and rose to the rank of major general. He commanded a brigade at the Battle of Shiloh and later became chief of staff of the Army of the Cumberland. He resigned his commission to take a seat in the House of Representatives.?

Chester A. Arthur (1881-1885): He served as a quartermaster general in the New York militia during the Civil War, overseeing the supply and transportation of troops and equipment. He did not see any combat.?

Benjamin Harrison (1889-1893): He enlisted as a second lieutenant in the 70th Indiana Infantry Regiment during the Civil War and fought in several battles, including Atlanta, Nashville, and Bentonville. He was promoted to brevet brigadier general by the end of the war.?

William McKinley (1897-1901): He enlisted as a private in the 23rd Ohio Infantry Regiment during the Civil War and participated in several campaigns, including Antietam, South Mountain, and Shenandoah Valley. He was promoted to brevet major for his bravery at the Battle of Opequon.?

Theodore Roosevelt (1901-1909): He resigned his position as assistant secretary of the navy to form a volunteer cavalry regiment known as the Rough Riders during the Spanish-American War. He led his men in a famous charge up San Juan Hill and was awarded a Medal of Honor posthumously in 2001. He was also a colonel in the New York National Guard before becoming president.?

Harry S. Truman (1945-1953): He served as a captain in the Missouri National Guard during World War I and commanded an artillery battery in France. He was also a colonel in the Army Reserve between the wars.?

Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953-1961): He was a career soldier who graduated from West Point and served in both world wars. He was a five-star general of the army and the supreme commander of Allied forces in Europe during World War II. He planned and executed Operation Overlord, the invasion of Normandy, and led the liberation of Western Europe from Nazi occupation. He was also the first supreme commander of NATO before becoming president. He was one of two presidents to hold the rank of General of the Army while in office, along with Grant.?

John F. Kennedy (1961-1963): He served as a lieutenant in the U.S. Navy during World War II and commanded a patrol torpedo boat in the Pacific theatre. His boat, PT-109, was rammed by a Japanese destroyer and he led his surviving crew to safety despite being injured himself. He received a Navy and Marine Corps Medal for his heroism and a Purple Heart for his wounds.?

Lyndon B. Johnson (1963-1969): He served as a lieutenant commander in the U.S. Navy Reserve during World War II and flew on several combat missions in the Pacific theatre. He was awarded a Silver Star for his participation in a bombing raid over New Guinea, although his role and actions were controversial and disputed by some historians.?

Richard Nixon (1969-1974): He served as a lieutenant commander in the U.S. Navy Reserve during World War II and was assigned to various logistics and administrative roles in the Pacific theatre. He did not see any combat but received two service stars for his involvement in the campaigns.?

Gerald Ford (1974-1977): He served as a lieutenant commander in the U.S. Navy during World War II and was assigned to various naval vessels and bases in the Pacific theatre. He participated in several combat operations, including the Battle of Leyte Gulf, the Battle of Iwo Jima, and the Battle of Okinawa. He received a Bronze Star for his actions during a typhoon that endangered his ship.?

Jimmy Carter (1977-1981): He graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy and served as a lieutenant in the U.S. Navy from 1946 to 1953. He was trained as a submariner and served on various nuclear and diesel submarines, including the USS Sea wolf. He also worked on the development of nuclear propulsion systems under Admiral Hyman Rickover. He resigned his commission to take over his family's peanut farm.?

Ronald Reagan (1981-1989): He served as a captain in the U.S. Army Reserve from 1937 to 1945. He was initially assigned to the Army Air Corps Public Relations Unit, where he made training films and propaganda materials. He was later transferred to the First Motion Picture Unit, where he continued to produce and narrate military films. He did not see any combat but received an American Campaign Medal and a World War II Victory Medal for his service.?

George H.W. Bush (1989-1993): He served as a lieutenant junior grade in the U.S. Navy during World War II and was one of the youngest naval aviators at the time. He flew 58 combat missions in the Pacific theatre and was shot down by Japanese anti-aircraft fire over Chichi Jima. He was rescued by a submarine and received a Distinguished Flying Cross for his bravery.?

George W. Bush (2001-2009): He served as a first lieutenant in the Texas Air National Guard from 1968 to 1974. He trained as a fighter pilot and flew F-102 Delta Dagger interceptors. He completed his service obligation but did not see any combat. His attendance and performance records were subject to controversy and criticism during his political career.?

The important question of who controls strategy in times of crisis, i.e. military leadership vs civilian leadership, is a complex and controversial one. There is no definitive answer, as different situations may require different approaches and trade-offs. However, some general principles can be considered.

One principle is that civilian leadership should have the ultimate authority and responsibility for deciding the goals and objectives of a crisis response, as well as the means and resources to achieve them. This is based on the idea that civilians are more accountable to the public and more representative of the national interests and values. Civilian leadership should also provide clear guidance and direction to the military leadership, and ensure that they have the necessary political and legal support.

Another principle is that military leadership should have the operational autonomy and flexibility to plan and execute the strategy in crisis, as well as the expertise and experience to advise the civilian leadership on the feasibility and risks of different options. This is based on the idea that military leaders are more knowledgeable about the tactical and technical aspects of a crisis response, and more capable of adapting to changing circumstances and challenges. Military leadership should also provide honest and timely feedback and information to the civilian leadership, and ensure that they follow their orders and directives.

In conclusion, the importance of strategy and military leadership in today's world cannot be overstated. Strategy is the art and science of planning and executing actions to achieve goals in the face of uncertainty and complexity. Military leadership is the ability to inspire, motivate and direct people to accomplish missions under challenging conditions. Both strategy and military leadership are essential for ensuring national security, maintaining global stability and advancing human rights and democracy. Without them, the world would be more chaotic, violent and oppressive.

Note: This article has been written for learning & development purpose only and it has been sourced from open source data on the web.