Understanding How U.S. Presidential Elections Work: A Guide for the Unfamiliar

As we head into another U.S. presidential election, it's important to offer a quick refresher on how the voting process works, especially for those used to systems like Italy's, which are entirely different. Often, I hear opinions based on national polling, focusing on who’s leading in terms of the popular vote. But this metric is largely irrelevant since, as we'll see, the President is elected in a completely different way.

The first thing to know is that, in the U.S., you have to register to vote. As a result, only about 15% to 22% of eligible voters typically participate in elections. For Italians, who are accustomed to a different system, the process of electing a U.S. President can seem quite confusing. So, with Election Day in November fast approaching, here’s a breakdown of how U.S. presidential elections actually work.

The discrepancies between the American and Italian systems are largely due to the different forms of government in each country: Italy is a parliamentary republic, while the U.S. is a presidential republic. This means that the U.S. President is both the Head of State and the Head of Government, wielding both executive and representative power. For instance, the President not only commands the military and leads foreign policy, but also appoints and oversees a series of ministers who head various branches of U.S. government agencies, forming what is called the “Cabinet.”

Eligibility for Running for President

First off, any U.S. citizen who has lived in the country for at least 14 years and is over 35 years old can run for the White House. Additionally, if a candidate spends or raises more than $5,000 for their campaign, they must register with the Federal Election Commission (FEC) and establish a committee to manage the funds. Since the Citizens United decision in 2010, campaign finance rules have changed, reducing restrictions on donations from individuals and, notably, corporations. This has led to the rise of so-called “Super PACs,” independent committees that can raise unlimited amounts of money with little transparency to indirectly support a candidate.

How the Primaries Work

The two “Major Parties”—the Republicans and the Democrats—select their presidential candidates through primary elections held in each of the 50 states, as well as in U.S. territories (Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, American Samoa, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands) and in Washington, D.C. These primaries take place on different days, between six and nine months before Election Day, giving candidates time to hold rallies and events in many states.

Primary elections can be conducted in two different ways. Traditionally, some states hold secret ballot elections (Presidential Primaries), while others use “caucuses.” A caucus is a more hands-on approach where party activists hold local meetings, and citizens actively participate in debates to support their preferred candidates and persuade undecided voters. For example, Iowa’s caucus, held on January 15 this year, traditionally kicks off the primary season and plays a key role in assessing a candidate's real chances of success.

Each state adopts different rules for these elections based on the party’s guidelines. Some states hold “open primaries,” where voters don’t need to be registered members of the party to cast their vote, while others have “closed primaries,” where only registered party members can participate. There are also hybrid models, but in no case is “split-ticket voting” allowed, meaning voters can only participate in the primaries of one party.

Based on the results of the caucuses or primary elections, each candidate is awarded a varying number of delegates (depending on the party’s local rules), who will represent their state at the national party convention. It is at this convention that the party’s presidential candidate is officially chosen. The method for assigning delegates varies by state: some use proportional representation, others adopt a “winner-takes-all” system, while still others use a hybrid approach determined by individual party rules.

What Is the “National Convention”?

As previously mentioned, the National Convention is the event where the party officially nominates its presidential candidate. It is typically held in July for the Republicans and in August for the Democrats.

Delegates play a key role here—they are local party activists, senators, and members of Congress who are tasked with voting for the candidate they represent. Remember, these delegates are “tied” to a specific candidate because they represent the voters who supported that candidate during the primaries.

A candidate must secure a majority of delegates to win the nomination. But if the delegates simply follow the primary results, why is another vote necessary at the Convention?

Because this is where “superdelegates” come into play—prominent party figures who can vote for whichever candidate they choose, sometimes overturning the results.

In rare cases of a tie, we witness what’s called a “Brokered Convention,” where delegates vote again, in subsequent rounds, until a candidate secures the majority.

How Do General Presidential Elections Work?

A few months after the Convention, with the official Democratic and Republican nominees set for President and Vice President (known as the “ticket”), the general election takes place. In addition to the two major parties, voters can also choose from third parties (Libertarians, Greens, etc.) or independent candidates (such as Robert F. Kennedy Jr.), who must gather a specified number of signatures in each state to qualify for the ballot.

The election is held on the first Tuesday following the first Monday in November, as dictated by tradition and law. All American citizens have the right to vote, even if they participated in the primaries of the rival party. However, it’s important to note that these are indirect elections—voters don’t directly elect the President. Instead, they vote for a representative known as an “elector.”

Most states use a winner-takes-all system, meaning the candidate who wins the state secures all its electors. Electors are individuals affiliated with a party or a particular candidate (activists, former members, etc.), although some are senators and governors. By law, these electors must be formally appointed by the party or the candidate they support.

There are 538 electors in total—equal to the number of members of Congress, plus three additional electors from Washington, D.C. These electors are distributed across the states based on population, so, for example, Iowa has fewer electors than Texas.

Although the role of electors has diminished over time, they still meet in mid-December to cast their votes for President. Technically, electors could vote for any candidate, but in modern times they typically vote for the candidate they’re pledged to support.

Finally, in early January, Congress convenes to officially count the electoral votes. A candidate must receive at least 270 electoral votes to win the presidency. If no candidate reaches this threshold, Congress will elect the President.

This complex system of electors and multiple rounds of voting may seem outdated, but in the 18th century, it was seen as a way to balance the popular vote with Congressional oversight. While politics have evolved, this method remains a distinctive feature of U.S. democracy.