Transfer of Learning
C K Vishwakarma
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1.] Transfer of Training
Now widely referred to as 'transfer of learning is all about getting professionals to apply new knowledge or skills in the workplace.
2.] Importance of Transfer of Learning
The importance of Learning and Development (L&D) strategies in organizations is well recognized.
According to the Training Industry Report, the global investment in L&D was 340 billion dollars, averaging more than $1500 per employee per year.
During “The Great Resignation” a total of 48 million professionals quit their jobs in 2021 and over 50 million in 2022. This adversely affected the organizations, resulting in decreased productivity and competitiveness. Over 70% of professionals cited that they would prefer to stay with organizations that provide them with continuous growth opportunities, and 54% of professionals stated that the main reason for quitting their jobs is not feeling valued by their organization.
A strong L&D strategy results in higher employee retention affecting an organization’s profitability. 79% of interviewed L&D professionals stated that training an existing employee costs less than hiring and training a new one. Aside from encouraging employees to acquire new skills, a good L&D strategy should enhance employees’ job satisfaction. This helps create a sense of commitment and loyalty among the employees, who tend to be more motivated and engaged in fulfilling the organization’s goals.
71% of CEOs consider human capital the most important sustained economic value.
Having an active and strong L&D culture is one of the ways to attract and retain talented, ambitious, and hardworking employees who will actively achieve the organization’s goals and help the organization become more productive and profitable. The absence of a structured transfer of learning approach can reflect poorly on the contribution of L&D specialists in identifying and facilitating the implementation of critical success factors for organizations.
3.] An Enterprise L&D Strategy
An enterprise L&D strategy is a plan that outlines and ensures how an organization will develop its employees’ skills to deliver current and future job requirements that align with the overall organization’s transformation goals and prepare itself to survive, sustain, and scale in the future. A good L&D strategy must take an organization's goals and break them down into desired competencies across various departments, roles, and levels in the organization, it involves identifying skills gaps and needs, setting learning objectives, selecting appropriate training methods, and evaluating and measuring the outcomes.
Employees who intend to grow their careers will search for an organization that enables them to do so.
Therefore, L&D strategy is a two-way street, a perfect proportion of mutual benefit, where top talents will be motivated to invest their quality hard work in the organization if the organization is ready to invest in nurturing and growing their skills and career progression.
4.] Challenges in the Transfer of Learning
The problem during the transfer of learning is multifaceted. It is typically revealed late in the current approach when trainees rate the training, they have rated highly but fail to apply (i.e. transfer) the knowledge and skills in the work situation. Key challenges include:
The Learning x Transfer = Results Equation is widely used in our industry. However, the 'traditional' perspective is that L&D is responsible for making the learning happen and managers are responsible for ensuring that transfer happens.
"Transfer of learning is our use of past learning when learning something new and the application of that learning to both similar and new situations." Robert Haskell (2001). Robert highlights "All learning involves transfer from prior learning to a greater or lesser degree."
Another key reason formal learning is mostly insufficient is that for many scenarios, competence cannot be developed in isolation in the classroom from real work. Even if the formal training provides appropriate realistic practice, competence development will probably require real-world practice. This practice can only take place via transfer of learning in the workplace, which means the learners have transitioned from formal classroom learning to informal learning at the workplace.
"Transfer of training is a natural intersection between formal learning in training and informal learning at the workplace: Whereas concepts and explicit knowledge are taught in formal training, transfer of training happens in and through work practice." (Jennifer Sparr et al 2017)
5.] The Transfer of Training: What Really Matters, Grossman and Salas (2011)
In the paper The Transfer of Training: What Really Matters (Grossman and Salas, 2011), researchers have used Model of Transfer by Baldwin and Ford (1988) to identify the factors relating to trainee characteristics (cognitive ability, self-efficacy, motivation, perceived utility of training), training design (behavioral modeling, error management, realistic training environments) and the work environment (transfer climate, support, opportunity to perform, follow-up) that have exhibited the strongest, most consistent relationships with the transfer of training. They have also described their reasoning for extracting such variables from the literature and concluded by discussing potential implications for practice and future research.
In a comprehensive review, Baldwin and Ford (1988) provided a critical analysis of the existing transfer literature and suggested directions for future research. Since their review, there has been an outpouring of both conceptual and empirical research, all aiming to bridge the gap between training and workplace performance (see Burke & Hutchins, 2007 and Hutchins & Burke, 2007). Numerous empirical studies, reviews, and meta-analyses have yielded a wealth of information regarding the transfer of training.
This vast database of sometimes inconsistent findings, however, could make it difficult for organizations to pinpoint exactly which factors are most critical for transfer.
In this paper, researchers have developed an updated review that identifies only those factors that have shown the strongest, most consistent relationships with training transfer. Thus, the purpose of this Grossman and Salas (2011) is to identify and summarize the most critical findings relating to the transfer of training. This is to help organizations looking to design training programs and facilitate transfer.
As the researchers mentioned their review is not meant to be comprehensive, their goal was not to provide another comprehensive review of the transfer literature but, rather, to integrate findings from existing reviews and provide a translation for organizations seeking evidence-based guidance. They also highlighted the comments made by Blume et al. (2010, p. 1095) suggesting that the focus of research should shift from ‘the general question, Can training transfer? – which has already been answered affirmatively – to a more targeted focus
6.] Baldwin and Ford's Model of Transfer
Baldwin and Ford (1988) provided a critical analysis of the transfer literature and suggested directions for future research by presenting a model of the transfer process which includes training inputs, training outputs, and conditions of transfer.
Training inputs are thought to influence conditions of transfer both directly, and indirectly, through their impact on training outputs. In line with this model, Grossman and Salas (2011) identified the training inputs that have proven to be highly crucial for the learning, retention, generalization, and maintenance of targeted skills.
7.] Key Findings from Grossman and Salas (2011)
In this section, I am presenting my analysis based on industry and organizational experience on the findings in Grossman and Salas (2011) on Baldwin and Ford (1988) model. My analysis has been added against each factor:
7.1.] Trainee Characteristics
7.1.1.] Cognitive Ability
Trainees’ ability, particularly cognitive ability, is a strong predictor of transfer outcomes (Burke & Hutchins, 2007) . Strong evidence of the role of cognitive ability was found in an extensive meta-analysis based on two decades of training research (Colquitt et al., 2000) . The authors reported a corrected correlation coefficient between cognitive ability and training transfer of 0.43. More recently, Blume et al. (2010) echoed these findings in another thorough meta-analytic review of the transfer literature. Cognitive ability emerged as the single strongest predictor of training transfer.
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Trainees higher in cognitive ability have more success in processing, retaining, and generalizing trained skills. Organizations can safely assume that trainees’ cognitive ability will play a vital role in the ultimate success of their training programs.
7.1.2.] Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy can be defined as a judgment an individual makes about his or her ability to perform a given task (Bandura, 1982). Trainees higher in self-efficacy have more confidence in their ability to learn and apply trained competencies and are more likely to persist when performing difficult tasks. It is important to note, however, that high self-efficacy might not unconditionally result in positive transfer outcomes. Recent work has identified circumstances in which self-efficacy did not correlate with valued performance outcomes. A study by Vancouver and Kendall (2006) suggested that high self-efficacy could cause individuals to feel they are adequately prepared for a challenge and could thus reduce their motivation to prepare or put forth sufficient effort. Although self-efficacy may not be an obvious component of training programs, organizations could greatly benefit from understanding its significant role in the transfer of training.
7.1.3.] Motivation
For the transfer to occur, trainees must believe that they are capable of learning, that their effort to learn will change their performance, and that a change in their performance will lead to valuable outcomes (Facteau et al., 1995). The findings indicate that it is critical that trainees remain motivated during multiple stages of the training process for transfer to occur. Trainees must believe that it is possible to learn and increase performance and that such improvements will benefit them. Although trainee motivation is another factor that is often overlooked, it undoubtedly plays a crucial role before, during, and after training. Trainee motivation has emerged as a significant contributor to the transfer of training (Baldwin et al., 2009).
7.1.4.] Perceived Utility of Training
Training has high utility when trainees perceive a clear link between required performance and outcomes that they value (Chiaburu & Lindsay, 2008). Velada et al. (2007) showed that trainees’ assessments of how applicable the training was to the job, or the degree to which training instructions matched job requirements, significantly related to training transfer. In general, trainees who perceive training as useful and valuable are far more likely to apply new competencies to the workplace than those who do not. Organizations are advised to devote a portion of their training programs to communicating the necessity and utility of their training efforts.
7.2.] Training Design
7.2.1.] Behavioural modeling
In a meta-analytic review, Taylor et al. (2005) concluded that behavioral modeling facilitated transfer the most when mixed (both positive and negative) models were provided when trainees generated their own scenarios during practice when trainees were prompted to set goals when trainees’ supervisors also underwent training and when rewards and sanctions were instituted in the work environment. Providing opportunities for trainees to observe and practice targeted behaviors enhances their ability to learn and retain new information.
7.2.2.] Error Management
Error management promotes the transfer of training by allowing trainees to anticipate potential issues, providing them with knowledge of how to handle such problems, and highlighting the negative outcomes that can occur if training is not transferred. Heimbeck et al. (2003), for example, found that training transfer was greater for trainees who were provided with error training and error management instructions as compared to trainees who received error training alone or those who were prevented from making errors during the training process.
Providing information about incorrect behaviors appears to be equally as important as communicating target behaviors. Organizations can benefit from recognizing error management as an effective strategy for promoting the transfer of training.
7.2.3.] Realistic Training Environment
Conducting training and practice in environments that resemble the workplace increases the likelihood that trained competencies will transfer. Providing a relevant training context essentially allows trainees to gain experience implementing targeted behaviors in the appropriate environment. Realistic training environments are thus significant contributors to the transfer of training. Many training programs now incorporate the use of simulations. Interestingly, both low-fidelity (e.g. role-playing) and high-fidelity (e.g. full-motion simulators) simulations have shown to be equally effective training strategies.
7.3.] Work Environment
7.3.1.] Transfer Climate
Characteristics of a positive transfer climate include cues that prompt trainees to use new skills, consequences for the correct use of skills and remediation for the incorrect or lack of use, and social support from supervisors and peers through the use of incentives and feedback.
Rouiller and Goldstein (1993) classify these characteristics into two categories: situational cues and consequences. Situational cues include things such as manager goals, peer support, equipment availability, and the opportunity to practice trained skills. Consequences consist of punishment and positive and negative feedback following the application of trained skills.
Overall, a positive transfer climate is critical for the application and maintenance of new skills on the job. Organizations that do not take transfer climate into account could seriously hamper their training efforts.
7.3.2.] Support
Both supervisor and peer support significantly influence the propensity for trainees to utilize trained competencies in the workplace. Supervisors can provide support in various ways and at multiple stages in the training process. Prior to training, supervisors should communicate goals regarding the desired performance, the conditions under which the performance will be expected to occur on the job and the criterion of acceptable performance (Burke & Hutchins, 2007) . Goal setting can facilitate transfer by directing attention, stimulating action, increasing persistence and prompting trainees to utilize newly acquired knowledge and abilities.
Trainees in Gilpin-Jackson and Bushe’s (2007) study indicated that observing others using trained skills and being able to coach one another greatly facilitated training transfer. Cromwell and Kolb (2004) showed that high levels of peer support related to the transfer of knowledge and skills 1 year after training.
In sum, the transfer of training is facilitated through the provision of both supervisor and peer support. Of all of the work environment variables, support has garnered perhaps the strongest evidence for its role in the transfer of training.
7.3.3.] Opportunity to Perform
For training to successfully transfer, trainees need the resources and opportunities to apply their new skills and abilities to the workplace. To provide opportunities, managers should modify recent trainees’ workloads to allow them to practice new skills on the job (Clarke, 2002). Furthermore, the delay between training and the opportunity for trainees to use their learned skills should be minimized for optimal transfer outcomes (Salas et al., 2006).
7.3.4.] Follow-up
The completion of formal training should not mark the end of the learning experience. The period immediately following the official training program holds various opportunities for enhancing learning and maintenance (Salas & Stagl, 2009). To facilitate transfer, the formal training period should be followed by additional learning opportunities (e.g. after action reviews, feedback, job aids). Baldwin et al. (2009) concluded that post-training interventions such as relapse prevention, self-management, goal setting, training in self-talk and post-training instructor follow-ups generally show positive effects on the transfer of training. Organizations should therefore continue to facilitate the learning process following the completion of training to promote positive transfer
8.] Conclusion
The 'transfer problem' is inevitable when training programs are limited to only off-the-job learning and fail to adequately incorporate experiential learning in the flow of work as a fundamental component, enabling the transfer of learning. On-the-job learning from applications should be an integral part of training programs.
The number of training programs does not indicate the extent of effective application or otherwise, of the knowledge and skills gained during training. If training is to provide a satisfactory return on investment senior management must ensure that appropriate evaluation and reward mechanisms focus the attention of both management and L&D specialists on strategies that enhance the effectiveness of transfer of learning.
A strong L&D strategy recognizes that 'transfer of learning” is in fact another phase of learning. It is during this experiential learning phase that prior, off-the-job learning is 'put into practice' in the real workplace, leading to skill and proficiency development and achievement of desired organizational goals.
While organizations cannot feasibly incorporate every factor that has been linked to transfer into their training programs, incorporating multiple factors into training programs might not be financially or logistically practical for many organizations. Rather, they could benefit from a set of best practices or guidelines identifying only those factors that are most likely to make a significant impact on their transfer outcomes.
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