Tokyo Rising: How Japan’s Capital Shift Transformed the Nation

The founding of Tokyo as Japan's capital in 1868 constituted a watershed moment in Japanese history, marking the end of centuries of feudal control under the Tokugawa Shogunate and the start of the Meiji Restoration. This revolution was more than just a move in the seat of government; it marked Japan's transition from an isolated feudal society to a modern state. The decision to relocate the capital from Kyoto, where it had been for almost a thousand years, to Edo—renamed Tokyo—was both practical and symbolic, representing the ideals of the new Meiji administration. To properly grasp the reasons behind this historic decision, it is necessary to understand Kyoto's historical significance in Japan.

Kyoto, originally called Heian-kyo, was founded in 794 AD and served as Japan's Imperial capital for almost a millennium. Kyoto, as the nation's political, cultural, and spiritual capital, was associated with the imperial court's traditions and cultural achievements throughout the Heian period. It eventually became the metaphorical heart of Japan. However, by the mid-nineteenth century, the city's significance had declined dramatically due to the advent of the Tokugawa Shogunate, whose military authority was headquartered in Edo, present-day Tokyo. This movement of authority away from Kyoto laid the groundwork for the major upheavals to come.

The Meiji Restoration, which began in 1868, was a tremendous change in Japan, motivated by the desire to restore imperial control and modernize the country. The youthful Emperor Meiji became the face of this movement, which aspired to deconstruct Japan's feudal history and consolidate control in the royal court. Although Kyoto had long been the nation's metaphorical heart, it was increasingly considered as insufficient to symbolize the new Japan that the Meiji authorities envisioned. The city was considered antiquated, and its infrastructure was deemed insufficient to handle a fast-industrializing state's administrative and political needs.

Even before the Meiji Restoration, discussions about transferring the capital were underway. Kyoto had long declined as the nation's political center, particularly as the Tokugawa Shogunate's power base in Edo grew. Significant discussions concerning the capital's relocation gained traction during the Meiji period when the new administration's need for a more appropriate headquarters became clear.

Following the critical Battle of Toba-Fushimi, which marked the collapse of the Tokugawa Shogunate, prominent members of the new administration began pressing for a relocation from Kyoto in early 1868. Among them was Okubo Toshimichi, one of the most significant architects of the Meiji Restoration. Okubo first recommended relocating the capital to Osaka, claiming that the city's strategic position and economic significance made it an excellent choice. However, this idea was strongly opposed by conservative groups within the Imperial Court, who hesitated to depart Kyoto. The Osaka project was eventually abandoned due to considerable resistance from Kyoto's nobility and citizens concerned about losing their political and cultural status.

Despite rejecting Osaka as the future capital, support for transferring the seat of authority grew. In March 1868, Emperor Meiji paid a historic visit to Osaka with senior government officials as part of a larger campaign to reestablish imperial power and settle the political situation following the Boshin War. Edo, the Tokugawa Shogunate's heartland, underwent enormous changes during this time. The surrender of Edo Castle in April 1868 represented the symbolic end of the Tokugawa era and paved the ground for the city's change.

Shortly after the surrender, Maejima Hisoka, a Satsuma Domain scholar, petitioned to relocate the capital to Edo rather than Osaka. Maejima's case rested on Edo's strategic position and well-developed infrastructure, which made it a better fit for the imperial capital. This concept gathered hold, and important government leaders, notably Okubo Toshimichi, soon began to back the idea of making Edo the new capital. The practical benefits of exploiting Edo's existing infrastructure bolstered its argument for selection.

The shift from Edo to Tokyo was meticulously planned. On May 24, 1868, the Meiji administration decided to move the Tokugawa clan from Edo to Sunpu in Suruga Province, eliminating any possible power base that may threaten the new system. This decision paved the way for Edo to be renamed Tokyo, which means "Eastern Capital," 東京 and was formally proclaimed on September 3, 1868. The name "Tokyo" was highly significant, reflecting the transfer of the imperial seat from Kyoto to Tokyo. Although the decision was touted as part of a plan to have two capitals, East (Tokyo) and West (Kyoto), Tokyo quickly became Japan's de facto single capital.

Following his delayed enthronement ceremony in August 1868, Emperor Meiji started on the "Eastern Journey" on September 20, 1868. This tour was notable since it was the Emperor's first visit to his new capital, Tokyo. On October 13, 1868, the emperor arrived in Edo, accompanied by approximately 3,000 officials and troops. On the same day, Edo Castle was renamed Tokyo Castle and appointed as the new imperial residence. When Emperor Meiji arrived in Tokyo, he issued an imperial rescript announcing that Japan was now united under his authority and that he would personally manage all domestic and foreign matters, emphasizing Tokyo's role as the nation's political center.

Despite the emperor's transfer to Tokyo, whether the capital had been legally shifted remained debatable. Many conservatives in Kyoto opposed losing the city's status as the imperial capital. To allay these fears, the Meiji administration claimed that Kyoto and Tokyo were imperial capitals, yet Tokyo became the hub of government operations.

The capital's transfer posed several obstacles. In the months after the emperor's relocation to Tokyo, there were heated disputes among the administration concerning the ramifications of this choice. Some officials felt that sending the emperor back to Kyoto too quickly would jeopardize attempts to establish Tokyo as the new seat of authority. This resulted in a cautious approach to handling the changeover. Although the emperor returned to Kyoto in December 1868 for key ceremonies, it was apparent that he would return to Tokyo, assuring people in both areas that the government was dedicated to balancing the old and the new.

By 1871, the capital functions had mostly been transferred from Kyoto to Tokyo. The Kyoto Residency, the royal court's administrative body, was disbanded, and all surviving government offices in Kyoto were progressively evacuated to Tokyo. The emperor's deferral of his return to Kyoto in 1870 signaled that Tokyo had become Japan's seat of authority. Over the years, Tokyo grew as Japan's political, economic, and cultural powerhouse, with the erection of the Meiji Palace in 1888 solidifying its place as the imperial capital. By the early twentieth century, Tokyo had fully acquired the position that Kyoto had played for over a thousand years, firmly establishing itself as the nation's center.

However, recent changes might indicate a return of at least some government functions to Kyoto. In a move that reflects the ongoing efforts to decentralize Japan’s government and empower local communities, the Agency for Cultural Affairs relocated half of its divisions from Tokyo to Kyoto in 2023. This significant shift, representing the largest relocation of administrative functions out of Tokyo, underscores Kyoto’s enduring role in preserving and promoting Japan’s cultural heritage. Although the decentralization initiative has seen limited success, with only a few government organizations partially relocating outside the capital, the return of key cultural functions to Kyoto marks a symbolic reaffirmation of the city’s historical and cultural importance, bridging the past with the present in Japan’s governance.