Tokugawa Ieyasu: Savior or Suppressor? Examining the Edo Period

The recently ended FX/Hulu/Disney series "Shogun" starring Sanada Toshiyuki was truly a great piece of historically-set entertainment. Based on a novel, and previously made into a miniseries in the 1980s starring Richard Chamberlain, the version just completed made many updates and strove to stick more authentically to the time period, if not the actual story. See "Shogun: What it got right" and "Shogun: What it got wrong" for more details. However in the final episode, Mr. Sanada, playing Lord Tokunaga, a fictionalized Tokugawa Ieyasu says, "Only then will my dream be realized...I will start it in Edo, my center of power. A nation without wars. An era of great peace." This has been seized upon as something worthy of admiration by popular media. Vulture refers to the actions of the fictional Tokunaga as "A master of control, Toranaga deftly steers Japan's various factions - divided among religious and regional lines, and organized behind the country's Council of Regent - off the path to civil war and into a 260-year era of peace and prosperity known as the Edo period." Salon interviewed star and producer Sanada who said, "Very beginning, I thought [of] Toranaga's real-life model, leyasu [who], after the war period finished, created the peaceful era for 260 years until we opened the country to the world. So that's why he became a hero in Japan. And for me, I felt telling the story about his life is important, especially for now. We need that kind of hero. That's why I took this role and then tried my best to put my dream into this show to bring to the world." It is clear that many agree with Sanada that Tokugawa Ieyasu was a hero for creating an extended period of peace.

Certainly ending destructive wars was a good thing. The cost of human suffering in wars should be obvious to anyone. But as Baruch Spinoza is quoted as saying, "Peace is not an absence of war, it is a virtue, a state of mind, a disposition for benevolence, confidence, justice." And using this metric, the Edo period and the Tokugawa Shogunate who ruled during that time, fall steeply short of this goal. Let us examine in detail.

The Edo period in Japan, spanning from 1603 to 1868, marked a transformative era in the country's history characterized by stability, isolation, and strict social control. At its outset stood the establishment of the Tokugawa Shogunate, a powerful military government led by the Tokugawa family. In 1603, Tokugawa Ieyasu, a skilled military leader, solidified his grip on power by becoming the shogun, effectively unifying Japan under his rule after centuries of civil war. With the establishment of his government in Edo (present-day Tokyo), Ieyasu ushered in a period of relative peace and stability, known as the Pax Tokugawa, which endured for over two and a half centuries. This pivotal moment not only marked the beginning of the Edo period but also set the stage for a regime characterized by centralized authority, strict social hierarchy, and profound limitations on individual freedoms.

During the Edo period in Japan, the social structure was defined by a hierarchical system that tightly regulated the lives of its inhabitants. Called the "shinokosho" 士農工商, at the top of this structure were the samurai 士, the warrior class who held significant political and military power. Below them were the peasants, 農 who formed the backbone of agricultural production and comprised the largest segment of the population. Further down the hierarchy were the artisans, 工 skilled craftspeople who produced goods ranging from pottery to textiles. Finally, at the bottom were the merchants, 商 who despite their economic influence, were considered socially inferior due to their perceived lack of productive contribution. There were additional classes beyond the four contained in the name of the system, both those above and below. The classes above the samurai caste had nearly unlimited power, and the class below the merchants was a group that is still discriminated against in Japan today. This strict class system not only dictated one's occupation but also determined their social status and privileges. Moreover, social mobility was severely limited, with individuals typically unable to ascend beyond the class into which they were born.

The Tokugawa shogunate maintained control over movement and residence through the implementation of the sankin-kotai system, 参勤交代 which required daimyo (feudal lords) to spend alternate years in Edo, accompanied by their families, effectively serving as hostages to ensure their loyalty and obedience to the shogun. This system not only reinforced the hierarchical social structure but also served as a means of political control, further consolidating the shogunate's authority over the populace.

In order to ensure no regional warlord could rise up and challenge the Tokugawa shogunate, the Bakuhan system was created. One of the key elements of establishing the Bakuhan system (a portmanteau of Bakufu-meaning Shogunate - literally "tent government" and "han" meaning the regional fiefdoms) served to keep the rural areas poor, by requiring a significant percentage of their resources to be wasted on things like sankin kotai. To enforce this, in 1615 the Buke Shohatto 武家諸法度 or "Code of Warrior Households" was implemented. This 13-count edict had the following precepts:

1. Feudal rulers were required to devote themselves to honing their military and administrative skills. There was no room for distractions.
2. Revelry and amusements were strictly controlled, to prevent feudal lords from losing themselves in gambling, courtesans, and other similar "frivolous" pursuits.
3. Criminals cannot be harbored in any of the provinces (han).
4. Criminals cannot serve in military forces and must be expelled from all territories. While these two may seem on first blush to make some sense, there's no opportunity for rehabilitation/redemption, nor is there a clear path for those wrongly accused. It assumes the infallibility of the Shogunal justice system.
5. Daimyo (feudal lords) were not to engage in social interactions with people of any class from other domains. Presumably to prevent daimyo from recruiting followers from other lands.
6. Castles required shogunal approval to be repaired, and updates and expansions were strictly forbidden. The idea was to prevent the establishment of a strong military base from which to lead a civil war.
7. Anything that seemed potentially conspiratorial by a neighboring province must be reported to the shogunate immediately. Snitching was required by law.
8. Marriages among daimyo and others of the noble classes could not be arranged without the express guidance and permission of the shogunate. Marriages had been a way for daimyo to build alliances, so that had to be strictly controlled.
9. Daimyo had to present themselves at Edo for service to the Shogunate (this is the essence of sankin-kotai).
10. Uniforms must follow strictly approved guidelines. To prevent regional forces from establishing their own identity.
11. Riding in palanquins was restricted only to the elite classes. It was powerful symbolically and practically, as a palanquin could disguise one's movement.
12. Samurai were required to be frugal. Waste not, want not. If you had money to be indulgent, you should be spending that on the shogunate.
13. The staff that daimyo employed to run their fiefdoms had to be appropriately trained and credentialed. This meant that the pool of potential workers was limited and could be easily controlled by the shogunate.

The Tokugawa shogunate wielded centralized government control as a means of maintaining its authority over the country. This centralized control was exemplified by the establishment of a highly structured and hierarchical bakufu bureaucracy, which efficiently administered the vast territories under Tokugawa rule. The bakufu bureaucracy comprised various officials and administrators tasked with enforcing shogunate policies and collecting taxes. Additionally, the shogunate implemented strict censorship measures and exerted control over information dissemination to suppress dissent and maintain social order. Any form of dissent or criticism against the shogunate was met with severe punishment, including execution or exile, as a deterrent to potential challengers to the ruling authority. This systematic suppression of political opposition ensured the stability and longevity of the Tokugawa regime.

The Tokugawa shogunate exercised significant cultural and religious control as part of its broader strategy to maintain social stability and political authority. This control extended to the regulation of religion, particularly Buddhism and Shinto, which were closely monitored and often subjected to state oversight. The shogunate aimed to suppress religious influences that were perceived as potential sources of dissent or challenge to its authority. Furthermore, censorship of literature and art was rigorously enforced to ensure that cultural expressions did not undermine the status quo or criticize the ruling regime. Any works deemed subversive or politically sensitive were either banned outright or subjected to heavy censorship. Ukiyoe (woodblock prints) of the time were required to have a censor's approval stamp to be sold. Bunraku puppet plays, Kabuki, and other performances had to have their stories approved in advance. In parallel, the shogunate actively promoted Confucian values, emphasizing filial piety, loyalty, and obedience to authority, as a means of reinforcing social order and justifying its rule. This cultural and religious control played a crucial role in shaping the ideological landscape of Edo period Japan.

The Tokugawa shogunate imposed extensive economic restrictions as part of its efforts to maintain social stability and reinforce its authority. One of the primary mechanisms of control was the strict regulation of trade and commerce, which aimed to centralize economic activity and prevent the rise of powerful merchant classes that could challenge the political order. The shogunate implemented various policies such as the establishment of monopolies, trade restrictions, and the imposition of tolls and tariffs to control the flow of goods and limit foreign influence. Additionally, guilds and businesses were subjected to tight regulations and oversight, with the shogunate often dictating production quotas, setting prices, and determining distribution channels. These measures not only served to prevent economic competition but also ensured that economic activity remained subordinate to political authority. Moreover, the shogunate actively promoted an agrarian society, viewing agriculture as the foundation of national wealth and stability. Policies such as land redistribution, tax incentives for farming, and restrictions on urban development were implemented to encourage the growth of the agricultural sector and discourage urbanization.

The shogunate imposed strict limitations on personal freedoms as part of its broader efforts to maintain social order and control over the populace. One significant aspect of these limitations was the imposition of restrictions on clothing and appearance, whereby individuals were required to adhere to specific dress codes based on their social status. Samurai, for example, were mandated to wear distinctive attire to distinguish themselves from other classes. Additionally, curfews and restrictions on movement were enforced, particularly in urban areas, to regulate the activities of the populace and prevent potential unrest or subversion. People were required to return to their homes by a certain hour, and travel between regions often required official permission, further curtailing freedom of movement. Furthermore, the shogunate imposed bans on certain forms of entertainment deemed morally or socially undesirable, such as gambling, theater performances, and other activities associated with vice or rebellion. These restrictions on personal freedoms were integral to the maintenance of social control and the preservation of the Tokugawa regime's authority throughout the Edo period.

The period of the Tokugawa Shogunate was indeed a period of a lack of armed conflict, but it is difficult to cast the resulting period as one of "peace." While the end of destructive conflicts undoubtedly brought relief from human suffering, the Edo period and the Tokugawa Shogunate fell short of Spinoza's definition of peace as a virtue. Despite the narrative's focus on Ieyasu's heroic role in establishing peace, the reality was marked by stringent social control, economic restrictions, and limitations on personal freedoms imposed by the shogunate. Through centralized government control, cultural and religious regulation, economic manipulation, and restrictions on personal liberties, the Tokugawa regime maintained authority at the cost of individual autonomy and genuine peace. We are reminded of the words of Malcolm X, who said, "You can't separate peace from freedom because no one can be at peace unless he has his freedom."?