THE THREATS OF EXTINCTION TO HUMANITY CAUSED BY PLANET EARTH, HOW TO DEAL WITH THEM AND HOW TO AVOID THEM

Fernando Alcoforado*

This article aims to present the threats to the extinction of humanity caused by the forces of nature existing on planet Earth, which concern the cooling of the core of planet Earth, the catastrophic eruptions of volcanoes and the inversion of the Earth's magnetic poles, as well as presenting how deal with them and avoid them.

The cooling of planet Earth's core

The first major threat to humanity posed by planet Earth concerns the cooling of planet Earth's core, which has remained hot for more than 4.5 billion years, but is slowly and inevitably cooling. It is worth noting that the Earth is formed by an inner core, an outer core, the mantle and the crust [1] [6] (Figure 1). The Earth's core is almost 3,000 km deep in the Earth's crust (the outermost layer of the planet). Planet Earth's core temperatures can fluctuate between 4,400° C and 6,000° C, that is, with temperatures similar to those of the Sun.

Figure 1- Internal structure of planet Earth

Source: https://www.shutterstock.com/pt/search/earth-structure

The Earth's inner core is a solid sphere, composed mostly of iron. The outer core is formed by a malleable liquid, composed of iron and nickel. It is in the outer core that the Earth's magnetic field is formed. The colossal amount of thermal energy that emanates from the interior of planet Earth sets in motion phenomena such as the movement of tectonic plates and volcanic activity. Recent research has calculated that the center of the Earth is cooling faster than previously thought [2]. As the Earth's core cools, the tectonic plates, which are kept in motion by the flow of the Earth's mantle, slow down faster than expected. Without core activity, volcanoes would not erupt. But without the heat from Earth's interior, fish and plants that live at the bottom of the sea would be threatened, which would cause a major imbalance in the planet's food chain. Another major problem is that the Earth's magnetic field, essential for life on its surface, will be greatly weakened or disappear completely. Cosmic radiation and solar radiation, a stream of charged particles emitted by the Sun, will reach us directly and will deteriorate our atmosphere.

To deal with the cooling of the core of planet Earth, which has remained hot for more than 4.5 billion years, but is slowly and inevitably cooling, it is very important that there is constant monitoring of the temperature of the core of planet Earth to adopt, when necessary, strategies for escaping human beings to places that can be inhabited in the solar system, such as Mars, or outside it with the possibility of housing human beings, before the loss of the Earth's magnetic field and the imbalance in the planet's food chain. Furthermore, it is necessary to set up a global structure, a World Organization for the Defense Against Natural Catastrophes of global scope, which has the capacity to technically coordinate actions around the world in confronting the cooling of the Earth's core [1] [6].

Volcanoes eruptions

Volcanoes are openings in mountains and the Earth's surface that spew gases, fire and lava. Planet Earth currently has many active volcanoes that are fractures or openings in the Earth's surface through which materials that originate from the planet's interior are expelled, such as lava, gases and other materials called “pyroclasts” [1] [6]. Volcanoes arise when the so-called tectonic plates that are part of the Earth's crust collide, moving the material present on them and leaving openings to deeper layers of the planet. Volcanoes generally occur in places where there is intense movement of tectonic plates. Magma can escape through these openings in the form of lava present between the crust and the mantle, the middle layer of the Earth. The structure of the volcano consists of a magmatic chamber, a volcanic crater, a cone, a chimney and, in some cases, there are lateral or peripheral outlets (secondary chimneys) [3].

There are approximately 1,500 active volcanoes across planet Earth, and annually on our planet, about 70 volcanoes erupt. Inactive volcanoes can become active again, such as the Japanese volcano Shinmoe, which erupted after 52 years of being dormant. Other inactive volcanoes can still scare and even threaten life on Earth, such as the "supervolcano" Yellowstone, in Wyoming (United States), which can be catastrophic, as they have been several times in the past. In the case of Yellowstone Park, which includes much of the caldera area of the volcano of the same name, there is currently no active volcanic building. What exists is magmatic activity and underground magmatic chambers, kilometers deep beneath the park, which could form new surface volcanic buildings in the future. The park is also known for its geysers [4]. Yellowstone's supervolcano is thousands of times more powerful than a normal volcano. If it erupts, the ash cloud will cover regions of several North American states such as Wyoming, Montana, Idaho and Colorado, and could even reach cities such as Los Angeles, San Francisco, Portland and Seattle and have a negative impact on the climate of planet Earth [5].

In the United States, around 130 volcanoes are active. Kilauea, in Hawaii, is the best known, being one of the most active in the world, since 1983. In addition, Mount Saint Helens, in the State of Washington, was known for a major eruption in 1980, which resulted in 57 deaths. In Indonesia, there are around 120 active volcanoes. In Java alone (Indonesia) 140 million inhabitants live close to 30 volcanoes and more than 500 million people live close to volcanoes (8% of the world population). Chile is one of the countries with many active volcanoes in the world. There are around 95 active volcanoes. The Chilean volcano Calbuco located 1,000 kilometers south of Santiago, the capital of Chile, has returned to activity. Located 2,015 meters above sea level, Calbuco has not erupted since 1972. It is considered dangerous due to its geological constitution and its proximity to urban areas [5].

Japan has around 66 active volcanoes, including Mount Fuji, which could erupt soon, according to geological studies. Mount Fuji in Japan has been inactive for more than 300 years. The volcano could threaten the lives of around eight million people in the Tokyo region and surrounding areas. In Italy, in Sicily, Etna is the most active volcano in Europe whose last eruption occurred in November 2013. More than 600,000 people live on the slopes and surroundings of the volcano Vesuvius that buried Pompeii and Herculaneum in the year 79. Since then, it has erupted on about 30 occasions. In the 1906 eruption around a hundred people died and, in the last one in 1944, it destroyed 88 North American bombers during the Second World War. Iceland is home to the Eyjafjallaj?kull volcano, which closed European airspace in 2010 and affected thousands of flights. In Russia, most volcanoes are concentrated on the Kamchatka peninsula, in Siberia, in the easternmost region of the country [5].

The map below shows the Earth's seismic zones, which are the regions of the planet that have the strongest earthquakes and are also very prone to the occurrence of volcanism.

Figure 2- Earth’s seismic zones

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake

Volcanoes can lead to the extinction of species and life on the planet depending on the scale of their eruption. According to the scientific publication Nature Geoscience, Canadian researchers from the University of Calgary discovered evidence to explain how large volcano eruptions, which occurred 250 million years ago, ended a cycle of life on Earth [1] [6]. The volcanoes would have produced enough coal to form ash clouds in the atmosphere, which generated greenhouse gases and decimated 95% of marine life, in addition to 70% of terrestrial living beings. A study published by the renowned magazine "Science" provides evidence that the intense activity of volcanoes around 200 million years ago probably led to the extinction of around half of Earth's animal species in the period, known as the end of the Triassic, which is a geological period extending from about 252 to 201 million years ago. The research was carried out by scientists from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Columbia University, Rutgers University and Stony Brook University, all in the United States. Intense volcanic activity released enormous amounts of gases into the planet's atmosphere during this period, which abruptly changed its climatic conditions. The new climate conditions have modified the species' habitat both in the oceans and on dry land, researchers say. Evidence suggests that climate change occurred so suddenly that animals were unable to evolve and adapt. For scientists, the extinction that occurred at the end of the Triassic probably paved the way for the emergence of dinosaurs, which dominated the planet for the next 135 million years, until they reached extinction, approximately 65 million years ago [1] [6].

Scientists have long used data from satellites, seismic sensitivity equipment and other sources to detect upcoming volcano eruptions. It is possible to predict volcanic eruptions with constant monitoring of volcanoes to prevent disasters of catastrophic proportions with the adoption of evacuation plans for populations in areas covered by volcanoes. All of these measures must be adopted, especially in countries where volcano eruptions occur most in the world. In each of these countries, structures must be set up to monitor volcano eruptions and evacuation plans must be drawn up for populations in places that could be affected by these catastrophic events. Furthermore, it is necessary to set up a global structure, a World Organization for Defense Against Natural Catastrophes of global scope that has the capacity to technically coordinate the actions of countries in confronting volcano eruptions whose consequences have local, regional and global scope, especially of volcanoes that could lead to the extinction of life on the planet, such as the large eruptions of volcanoes that occurred 250 million years ago that ended a cycle of life on Earth. This world organization should, if necessary, adopt necessary measures to evacuate human beings to safe locations and, even, if necessary, outside planet Earth in places likely to be inhabited in the solar system or outside it in the case where the the eruption of volcanoes could lead to the threat of extinction of human beings, as has already occurred in the past [1] [6].

The reversal of Earth's magnetic poles

There is evidence to suggest that a process of inversion of the Earth's magnetic poles is in full swing, and many people believe that this event could trigger a series of cataclysmic effects. Among the most mentioned catastrophes are the displacement of continents, the occurrence of violent earthquakes, the extinction of thousands of species and marked climate change. Hundreds of magnetic pole reversals have already occurred on our planet. According to scientists, the geomagnetic field has been showing increasing signs of weakening over the last 160 years. The exchange of poles — when the south changes place with the north — happens when groups of atoms present in the molten iron of the Earth's core undergo realignment. Little by little these groupings (which work like small magnets) increase in size, influencing the rest of the nucleus and causing the magnetic field to invert [7]. The magnetic north pole, where the compass needle points, has no permanent location. In reality, it generally oscillates near the geographic north pole — the point around which the Earth rotates — over time due to movements within the planet's core. For reasons that are not yet entirely clear, the movements of magnetic poles can sometimes be more extreme than a simple wobble. One of the most dramatic migrations of these poles occurred around 42,000 years ago and is known as the Laschamps event, named after the French city where it was discovered [8].

Many scientists believe that most of us would not even notice a weakening in the magnetic field. However, although it is likely that humans would not notice much of the weakening of the magnetic field, our technology would suffer terribly. With the Earth more vulnerable to solar storms, artificial satellites, telecommunications systems and electrical power grids would be damaged, and this would affect our lives. Perhaps one of the worst scenarios would present itself if the continents actually moved thanks to the reversal of the magnetic poles. However, according to geological records from the last exchange, there is no evidence that planetary disasters or continental movements occurred because of this type of event. As some scientists explained, the pole reversal process takes between a thousand and 10 thousand years to occur, unless it ends up being “aborted” midway. One of the most dramatic effects would be the strong weakening of the magnetic field just before the exchange, which would make the Earth more vulnerable to radiation resulting from possible solar storms. Particles emitted by the Sun could interact with the Earth's atmosphere, triggering a series of chemical reactions that would result in holes in the ozone layer that, in turn, would result in various problems for humans. In the opinion of some researchers, processes like this may have caused the disappearance of several species 42 thousand years ago, including Neanderthals [7]. 42 thousand years ago, the world faced a few centuries of apocalyptic conditions caused by a reversal of the Earth's magnetic poles combined with changes in the behavior of the Sun. This is the main finding in a new multidisciplinary study, published in the journal Science. This last major geomagnetic reversal triggered a series of dramatic events that had far-reaching consequences for our planet. The ozone layer was destroyed, electrical storms swept across the tropics, solar winds generated light shows (auroras), arctic air spread across North America, ice sheets and glaciers grew, and weather patterns changed violently. During these events, life on Earth was exposed to intense ultraviolet light. Neanderthals and mega fauna went extinct, while modern humans found protection in caves. During centuries of apocalyptic conditions, Neanderthals became extinct [8].

There is a wealth of evidence strongly suggesting that the effects of Earth's magnetic pole reversal were global and far-reaching. This was found when scientists analyzed ancient New Zealand Kauri trees, which have been preserved in peat and other sediments for more than 40,000 years. New Zealand's kauri trees have revealed a prolonged rise in atmospheric radiocarbon levels caused by the collapse of Earth's magnetic field as the poles shift. Using the annual growth rings of kauri trees, scientists were able to create a detailed timescale of how Earth's atmosphere changed during this period. The trees revealed a prolonged rise in atmospheric radiocarbon levels caused by the collapse of Earth's magnetic field as the poles shifted. This provided a way to accurately link widely geographically dispersed records. Using the newly created time scale, scientists were able to show that the tropical Pacific rain belts and the Southern Ocean westerly winds changed abruptly at the same time, causing arid conditions in places like Australia. In turn, a variety of mega fauna, including giant kangaroos, became extinct. Further north, the vast Laurentide Ice Sheet grew rapidly in the eastern United States and Canada, while in Europe Neanderthals became extinct. Importantly, during the magnetic shift, the field strength dropped to less than 6% of what it is today. A compass from that era would have had difficulty finding north. Without any magnetic field, our planet completely lost its effective shield against cosmic radiation and many penetrating particles from space entered the upper part of the atmosphere. This combination of factors had an amplifying effect. High-energy cosmic rays from the galaxy and also huge bursts of rays from solar flares were able to penetrate the upper atmosphere, carrying particles into the air and causing chemical changes that caused the loss of stratospheric ozone. Most likely, dramatic changes and unprecedentedly high levels of ultraviolet radiation led early humans to seek refuge in caves, which explains the apparent sudden flowering of rock art around the world 42,000 years ago. Due to the coincidence of seemingly random cosmic events and extreme environmental changes found around the world 42,000 years ago, this period is called the "Adams Event", a tribute to the great science fiction writer Douglas Adams, author of "The Hitchhiker's Guide of Galaxies" [8].

Faced with the threat of extinction of humanity represented by the reversal of the Earth's magnetic poles, which would cause our planet to completely lose its effective shield against solar radiation and cosmic radiation, many penetrating particles from space would enter the upper part of the atmosphere, causing the loss of ozone stratospheric, it is very important that there is constant monitoring of the pole reversal to evaluate its effects. To protect human beings and avoid the extinction of humanity, it is necessary to build underground dwellings and underground cities across the planet capable of sheltering human life, protecting it from cosmic and solar radiation and adopt, when necessary, strategies for escaping human beings from the Earth to Mars or other locations in the solar system or beyond capable of supporting human life. Furthermore, it is necessary to set up a global structure, a World Organization for Defense Against Natural Catastrophes with a global scope that has the capacity to technically coordinate the actions of countries in confronting the inversion of the Earth's magnetic poles.

Conclusions

The threats to the extinction of humanity caused by the forces of nature existing on planet Earth, which concern the cooling of the core of planet Earth, the catastrophic eruption of volcanoes and the inversion of the Earth's magnetic poles, require the adoption of the strategies described below:

1. To save humanity from the threat of cooling of the Earth's core that could lead to the extinction of humanity on planet Earth, it is very important that there is constant monitoring of the temperature of planet Earth's core to adopt, when necessary, escape strategies of humans to places such as Mars or other locations in the solar system or beyond capable of supporting human life, prior to the loss of Earth's magnetic field and the imbalance in the planet's food chain resulting from the cooling of the Earth's core. Furthermore, it is necessary to set up a global structure, a World Organization for Defense Against Natural Catastrophes with a global scope that has the capacity to technically coordinate actions around the world in confronting the cooling of the Earth's core, among other catastrophic events.

2. To save humanity from the threat posed by the catastrophic eruption of volcanoes, especially those that could lead to the extinction of humanity on planet Earth such as the great eruptions of volcanoes that occurred 250 million years ago that ended a cycle of life on Earth, it is necessary constant monitoring of volcanoes with the use of satellites, seismic sensitivity equipment and other sources to detect upcoming eruptions of volcanoes in order to prevent disasters of catastrophic proportions. These measures should be adopted, above all, in countries where volcano eruptions occur most in the world. In each of these countries, structures must be set up to monitor volcano eruptions and evacuation plans must be drawn up for populations in places that could be affected by these catastrophic events and, if necessary human escape strategies must be adopted to places like Mars or other places in the solar system or beyond capable of supporting human life. Furthermore, it is necessary to set up a global structure, a World Organization for Defense Against Natural Catastrophes of global scope that has the capacity to technically coordinate the actions of countries in confronting volcano eruptions whose consequences have local, regional and global scope, especially of volcanoes that could lead to the extinction of life on planet Earth.

3. To save humanity from the threat posed by the reversal of the Earth's magnetic poles that could lead to the extinction of humanity, such as the exposure of humans to the galaxy's high-energy cosmic rays and also the enormous ray blasts from solar flares that penetrate in the upper atmosphere, carrying particles in the air and causing chemical changes that would cause the loss of stratospheric ozone, it is very important that there is constant monitoring of the pole reversal to assess its effects. The objective fact is that without any magnetic field, our planet would completely lose its effective shield against solar radiation and cosmic radiation and many penetrating particles from space would enter the upper part of the atmosphere. Faced with high levels of ultraviolet radiation, it is necessary to protect human beings and prevent their extinction by building underground dwellings and underground cities across the planet capable of sheltering human life and adopting, when necessary, strategies for escaping human beings from Earth to Mars or other locations in the solar system or outside it capable of supporting human life. Furthermore, it is necessary to set up a global structure, a World Organization for Defense Against Natural Catastrophes with a global scope that has the capacity to technically coordinate the actions of countries in confronting the inversion of the Earth's magnetic poles.

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* Fernando Alcoforado, awarded the medal of Engineering Merit of the CONFEA / CREA System, member of the Bahia Academy of Education, of the SBPC- Brazilian Society for the Progress of Science and of IPB- Polytechnic Institute of Bahia, engineer from the UFBA Polytechnic School and doctor in Territorial Planning and Regional Development from the University of Barcelona, college professor (Engineering, Economy and Administration) and consultant in the areas of strategic planning, business planning, regional planning, urban planning and energy systems, was Advisor to the Vice President of Engineering and Technology at LIGHT S.A. Electric power distribution company from Rio de Janeiro, Strategic Planning Coordinator of CEPED- Bahia Research and Development Center, Undersecretary of Energy of the State of Bahia, Secretary of Planning of Salvador, is the author of the books Globaliza??o (Editora Nobel, S?o Paulo, 1997), De Collor a FHC- O Brasil e a Nova (Des)ordem Mundial (Editora Nobel, S?o Paulo, 1998), Um Projeto para o Brasil (Editora Nobel, S?o Paulo, 2000), Os condicionantes do desenvolvimento do Estado da Bahia (Tese de doutorado. Universidade de Barcelona,https://www.tesisenred.net/handle/10803/1944, 2003), Globaliza??o e Desenvolvimento (Editora Nobel, S?o Paulo, 2006), Bahia- Desenvolvimento do Século XVI ao Século XX e Objetivos Estratégicos na Era Contemporanea (EGBA, Salvador, 2008), The Necessary Conditions of the Economic and Social Development- The Case of the State of Bahia (VDM Verlag Dr. Müller Aktiengesellschaft & Co. KG, Saarbrücken, Germany, 2010), Aquecimento Global e Catástrofe Planetária (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, S?o Paulo, 2010), Amaz?nia Sustentável- Para o progresso do Brasil e combate ao aquecimento global (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, S?o Paulo, 2011), Os Fatores Condicionantes do Desenvolvimento Econ?mico e Social (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2012), Energia no Mundo e no Brasil- Energia e Mudan?a Climática Catastrófica no Século XXI (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2015), As Grandes Revolu??es Científicas, Econ?micas e Sociais que Mudaram o Mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2016), A Inven??o de um novo Brasil (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2017),? Esquerda x Direita e a sua convergência (Associa??o Baiana de Imprensa, Salvador, 2018), Como inventar o futuro para mudar o mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2019), A humanidade amea?ada e as estratégias para sua sobrevivência (Editora Dialética, S?o Paulo, 2021), A escalada da ciência e da tecnologia e sua contribui??o ao progresso e à sobrevivência da humanidade (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2022), a chapter in the book Flood Handbook (CRC Press,? Boca Raton, Florida United States, 2022), How to protect human beings from threats to their existence and avoid the extinction of humanity (Generis Publishing, Europe, Republic of Moldova, Chi?in?u, 2023) and A revolu??o da educa??o necessária ao Brasil na era contemporanea (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2023).?