SOLID STATE BATTERY OVERVIEW
vijay tharad
Director Operations at Corporate Professional Academy for Technical Training & Career Development
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have been the undisputed leading technology in electrochemical energy storage since they were commercialized in 1991. Since then, the mass manufacturing of LIBs has reached maturity, and we have also seen the realization of high energy density, long cycling stability and low cost. LIB technology enabled the huge success of mobile consumer electronics, with its usage in electric vehicles and other advanced devices. Due to the use of organic solvents for the electrolytes, LIBs are sensitive to high temperatures, lose performance at low temperatures and show inherent safety risks with increasing energy density (Fig. 1a). As the performance of current LIBs is also limited, next-generation battery technologies are being intensively investigated, especially given the ever-increasing demand for high energy density as well as high power density.
Figure 1.
Comparison of various cell concepts with different fractions of liquid components.
All-solid-state batteries (all-SSBs) have emerged in the last decade as an alternative battery strategy, with higher safety and energy density expected . The substitution of flammable liquid electrolytes (LEs) with solid electrolytes (SEs) promises improved safety. Moreover, the possibility of bipolar stacking, and the use of high-voltage cathodes and a lithium metal anode can potentially improve the energy density of SSBs compared to LIBs. The work reported by Kanno and other Japanese scientists, in which an SE (i.e. Li10GeP2S12) showed a lithium ion conductivity higher than LEs for the first time, further fueled interest and confidence in the practical applications of SSBs.
Although many companies announced their all-SSB layout based on different SEs a long time ago, most companies experienced difficulties when it came to launching any all-SSB products. The critical bottleneck comes from the SEs and their properties, especially their interface issues (Fig. 1d) . Oxide SEs made of authentic ceramics not only require high temperature/pressure sintering for densification but also show slow interface kinetics, mainly due to poor interface contact. The use of sulfide/halide SEs is inevitably affected by moisture and requires dry-room operation, although cold-press densification is feasible for relatively soft sulfide/halide SEs. All-SSBs based on inorganic SEs in general suffer from chemo-mechanical issues (either contact loss, interphase formation, or both) during operation, even if the SE/electrode contact is sufficient after assembly. Polymer-based all-SSBs have the advantage of apparently good SE/electrode contact but require an elevated operation temperature due to the insufficient ionic conductivity of polymers at room temperature. Interface degradation occurs at high potentials considering the narrow electrochemical window of typical polymer SEs. Current all-SSBs are therefore still less competitive than LIBs with regard to cycling stability, rate performance and energy density. Moreover, the high price of SEs, unmatured production lines and additional devices for stack pressure create barriers for the scaling up of all-SSBs.
Recently, hybrid battery concepts have emerged as an intermediate route, where both SEs and LEs are involved in pursuing higher safety and energy density than LIBs while mitigating the chemo-mechanical problems in SSBs (Fig. 1b). These hybrid solid-liquid concepts have been advanced by various scientists and companies, and are often referred to as ‘semi-’, ‘quasi-’ or ‘pseudo-’ SSB concepts—but also often simply considered as SSBs in public, which may be misleading . In the case of polymer-based cells, adding a (substantial amount of) LE leads to the formation of gel polymer electrolytes with improved ionic conductivity; this method is widely used. In the case of inorganic SEs, the LE ideally fills voids and gaps, increases the electrochemically active interface areas, and thus lowers the electrode tortuosity and impedance.
Semi-SSBs share major materials, similar manufacturing processes and similar production lines with current LIBs, thus are easier to scale up compared to all-SSBs. Many companies demonstrated their semi-SSB products successively. Energy densities have been announced to be ～350?Wh kg–1, with claims of up to 400?Wh kg–1 achieved by optimized pack structures and alternative electrodes with higher specific capacities. For example, NIO launched a 150?kWh semi-SSB consisting of a hybrid electrolyte, Si-C composite anode and ultra-high nickel cathode, with an energy density of 360?Wh kg–1, enabling a 1000?km driving range on a single charge . The fraction of liquids in these semi-SSBs was never revealed, yet it is speculated to be 10 wt% to 15 wt% based on typical gel polymer electrolytes. However, the targeted increase in safety will probably only be achieved if the fraction of added liquid gets much smaller. The liquid fraction should probably be <5 wt% for almost-SSBs (Fig. 1c) . However, even all-SSBs exclusively containing solid components may still have a risk of thermal runaway . Clearly, the safety issues of SSBs will be different from LIBs, yet clear-cut proof still requires in-depth evaluation.
Current semi-SSBs, often considered SSBs for simplicity, are based on the modification of LIBs, where the ion transport in both electrolyte and electrode is mainly governed by an LE. We assume that this modification may be a marketing strategy, rather than a real advantage of SSBs over LIBs, especially if only a small amount of SE is added to what is otherwise an LE. From our point of view, the liquid component should only serve as an interface agent to keep the liquid fraction low, for safety reasons, and the solid/liquid interfaces need to be chemically stable. Otherwise, degradation and interphase formation may occur, leading to a performance decrease in the long term and compromising the whole concept. Since both oxide SEs and sulfide SEs show a strong tendency toward interaction with organic solvents, small-molecular-weight polymers are applied to substitute conventional LEs to stabilize the interfaces [8]. Super-concentrated (or solvent-in-salt) electrolytes or solvate ionic liquids are also suggested, where the strong interaction between Li+ ions and electronegative elements in the polar solvents can alleviate the reactivity of solvents, thus stabilizing the liquid/solid interfaces [9,10]. In addition, adding a liquid improves the electrochemical properties of electrodes only if ion transport through the composite is improved and electron transport is not compromised. This requires that ion transfer across the solid/liquid interfaces shows a sufficiently low resistance—which has rarely been proven. Recently, in situ polymerization has been used to solidify an originally liquid component in semi-SSBs, thus lowering the liquid content [11]. The liquid acts as a ‘self-healing’ additive at the beginning. Once it polymerizes, it still helps to keep sufficient contact even in the case of volume changes of electrodes.
Thin separators (<60?μm) and thick cathodes (>4 mAh cm–2) are required to boost the energy density (>350 Wh kg–1) of almost-SSBs . This not only needs advanced fabrication processes with optimized microstructures, but also requires solid/liquid electrolytes with good ionic conductivity to ensure fast ion transport. Organic-inorganic composite SEs, which combine the advantages of both organic and inorganic SEs, show good ductility and mechanical strength, good processability, and sufficient ionic conductivity for mass production. The porosity of cathode composites should be decreased to meet the target of <5 wt% (pore-filling) LE for almost-SSBs. Techniques, such as microstructure optimization and calendering in a dry process with different shear forces, need to be explored to minimize porosity without compromising the structural integrity of cathodes. In addition, we highlight the need for a high yield strength of SEs instead of a high Young's modulus to mitigate the interface stress by the volume change of electrodes . The quantitative study of the role of a liquid component on chemo-mechanical properties deserves further investigation as we transition from all-SSBs to almost-SSBs. Not least, lithium dendrite suppression should be considered once lithium metal is used as the anode.
The ‘all-solid’ concept is not necessarily the most rewarding target; rather, ‘almost-solid’ may be the most feasible strategy. A small fraction of liquid interface additive may lower the electrode impedance, help to mitigate contact loss when there are local cracks and keep long-term stability under the influence of cyclic volume changes of active materials—provided that LE and SE do not react and cause chemical degradation. To move from current semi-SSBs to almost-SSBs, a smaller liquid fraction (probably?<5 wt%) is required to achieve safety targets. Both highly conductive SEs and LEs (i.e. >10 mS cm–1 at room temperature) and corresponding solid/liquid interface stability need to be achieved and further explored en route. The cost of mass production should be decreased via optimized manufacturing processes and innovative material recycling routes. In any case, we are confident that we will see the commercial success of almost-SSBs in the near future.
The solid-state battery consists of a cathode, an anode, two current collectors and the solid-state electrolyte. Figure 1 shows the general structure of a solid-state battery.
Figure 1 : General structure of a solid-state battery, own representation
In principle, the same material can be used for the cathode as for Li-ions (e.g. NMC nickel-manganese-cobalt oxide). For the electrolyte, there are various variants, which essentially differ in oxides, sulfides and polymers (more information about the electrolytes can be found here).
Li metal is often used as anode material. This material is difficult to use for Li-ion batteries because it forms chemical bonds with the liquid electrolyte. Li-metal has a much higher energy density than today’s anodes, which is why it is expected that the energy density will increase considerably. More information about the general structure and the individual components can be found here.
Charging and discharging process of a solid-state battery
Figure 2: Charging and discharging process of a solid-state battery (a). Charging (b) Discharging, Own illustration
The charging process of a solid-state battery essentially works like that of a lithium-ion battery. Figure 2 shows how the charging and discharging process takes place in a battery. To charge a battery, a voltage is applied to the cell. This potential causes electrons to travel across the conductor and voltage source to the anode. The Li+ ions migrate through the solid electrolyte to the anode side where they deposit as metallic lithium. The deposition causes the volume of the anode to grow. This volume growth is still one of the challenges to be solved for the commercialization of solid-state batteries because it leads to large mechanical stresses within the cell.
During discharge, the process is reversed. Electrons migrate back to the cathode via a connected external load and the ions also migrate back via the electrolyte. The volume of the anode thus shrinks back to its original size.
Solid State Battery: Comprehensive and Detailed Introduction
What is a solid-state battery?
Traditional lithium-ion batteries consist of four main components: cathode, anode, electrolyte, and separator. Solid-state batteries replace the liquid electrolyte with a solid-state one. Compared to traditional lithium-ion batteries, the key difference of solid-state batteries is that the electrolyte changes from a liquid to a solid, offering both safety and high energy density. Solid-state electrolyte batteries are considered the ultimate form of lithium and sodium batteries, capable of completely solving safety issues and becoming the mainstay of new energy in the future. The working principle of solid-state batteries is similar to that of traditional liquid lithium batteries. The two ends of a traditional liquid lithium battery are the positive and negative poles, with the liquid electrolyte in the middle. The charging and discharging process is completed as lithium ions move back and forth from the cathode to the anode and then back to the cathode. The working principle of solid-state batteries is the same, where during charging, lithium ions in the cathode are detached from the crystal lattice of the active material and migrate to the anode through the solid-state electrolyte, while electrons migrate to the anode through the external circuit, where they recombine into lithium atoms, alloy, or are embedded into the anode material. The discharging process is the opposite of the charging process. By using a solid-state electrolyte instead of a liquid one, it is possible to use cathode and anode materials with higher specific capacities, while completely solving the safety issues of the battery. This is the fundamental way to achieve high energy density, safety, and long cycle life in all-solid-state lithium batteries. Therefore, solid-state batteries will be the direction of evolution for lithium-ion batteries.
Solid-state battery electrolyte
Solid-state electrolytes are the core components of solid-state lithium-ion batteries, serving as both the separator and the electrolyte of the battery. The core function of the electrolyte is to facilitate the transfer of Li+ ions between the positive and negative electrodes. An ideal solid-state electrolyte should meet characteristics such as high ionic conductivity, low interfacial impedance, structural stability, high safety, high mechanical strength, and low cost. At present, based on the type of electrolyte, they can mainly be divided into polymer solid-state electrolytes and inorganic solid-state electrolytes. The former's representative system is PEO (Poly(ethylene oxide)); the latter includes oxide, sulfide and halide systems.
Polymer solid-state electrolytes
Polymer solid-state electrolytes: Flexible and lightweight, but with low potential and poor room temperature conductivity
Polymer solid-state electrolytes are systems composed of polymers with high molecular weight and lithium salts (such as LiClO4, LiClO4, LiAsF6, LiPF6 etc.), which are polymer electrolytes with ion transport capabilities. They exhibit ionic conductivity when coordinated with alkali metal salts. Common polymer matrices include ether-based polymers, nitrile-based polymers, siloxane-based polymers, carbonate-based polymers, and polyvinylidene fluoride-based polymers. Currently, the main material system used in the commercial field is PEO (Poly(ethylene oxide)). Under the influence of an electric field, the oxygen atoms in the PEO chain segments can continuously coordinate and dissociate with lithium ions, facilitating the migration of lithium ions. PEO also has a high solubility for lithium salts, and due to its light weight, good viscoelasticity, simple preparation process, and good interface stability with the metallic Li electrode, it is one of the earliest studied and applied systems. However, PEO tends to crystallize at room temperature, resulting in a room temperature ionic conductivity of only 10^-6 to 10^-8 S/cm (where practical applications typically require a conductivity greater than 10^-3 S/cm), necessitating operation at high temperatures of 60°C to 85°C. Moreover, the voltage threshold that PEO can tolerate is only 3.8V, which is relatively low, and it can only be paired with iron lithium cathode materials, limiting the energy density.
Oxide solid-state electrolytes
Oxide solid-state electrolytes: have a wide electrochemical window and good stability, with high hardness but prone to brittleness.
Oxide solid-state electrolytes, composed of oxide inorganic salts, can be divided into crystalline and amorphous electrolytes. In addition to the amorphous lithium phosphorus oxynitride (LiPON) type electrolytes used in thin-film batteries, current commercialization mainly focuses on the research of crystalline electrolyte materials. The mainstream crystalline electrolyte material systems include: garnet (LLZO) structured solid-state electrolytes, perovskite (LLTO) structured solid-state electrolytes, NASICON-type sodium superionic conductor solid-state electrolytes, and LISICON-type solid electrolytes, etc.
The general formula for garnet-type electrolytes is Li3+xA3B2O12, with the main material system being Li7La3Zr2O12, which is currently widely used; the general formula for perovskite-type electrolytes is Li3x La2/3-x TiO3, which has the advantages of structural stability, simple preparation process, and a large range of variable components, but its ionic conductivity is slightly lower; NASICON-type electrolytes can prepare high-performance Li+ solid-state electrolytes by using the NASICON framework through lithium-sodium substitution, and the mainstream materials currently are the Li1+x Alx Ti2-x(PO4)3 (lithium aluminum titanium phosphate, LATP) system. Among the aforementioned materials, LLZO has a high compatibility with lithium anodes; NASICON-type and perovskite-type electrolytes have poor electrochemical stability against metallic Li. Overall, the room temperature ionic conductivity of oxide solid-state electrolytes is relatively high, reaching 10^-5 to 10^-3 S/cm, and they have a wide electrochemical window, high chemical stability, and considerable mechanical strength, making them an ideal solid-state electrolyte material system. However, they also have the risks of high sintering temperatures and susceptibility to brittle fracture during mechanical processing.
Ionic conductivity: The ionic conductivity of oxide electrolytes is in the middle range with max. 1mS/cm. This is better than for polymer electrolytes, but worse than for sulfide electrolytes .
Electrical conductivity: The electrical conductivity has so far only been marginally investigated in the literature. For the oxide electrolyte LLZO, a value of 10^-8 – 10^-7 S/cm is given in the literature, but measures are mentioned on how to improve this value . Thus, the electrical conductivity does not seem to be a major obstacle.
Interface compatibility anode/electrolyte:?The interface between electrolyte and electrodes is one of the main problems of the oxide electrolyte. The electrolyte is so stiff and brittle that it does not interface well with the electrodes, resulting in contact losses . Although there are approaches such as adding additional protective layers or applying an artificial SEI layer. However, these measures are still in the research stage, which is why the interfaces are still one of the weak points of oxide electrolytes today .
Interface compatibility cathode/electrolyte: The ionic conductivity is too poor to be used as a thick electrolyte layer. As a solution, for example, a gel coating is proposed to be applied, which ensures a good transition of ions from cathode to electrolyte . Small amounts of liquid electrolyte can also be applied instead of gel . If gel or liquid is added, however, this is no longer referred to as an all-solid-state battery (ASSB), but as a semi-solid-state battery (SSSB).
Chemical stability: The system is so stable that Li metal anodes are possible in principle . It is also characterized by the fact that it can be operated at ambient conditions . Oxide electrolytes also work at very high temperatures . For LLZTO, it has also been shown that operation at ambient conditions is possible .
Electrochemical stability: oxides are electrochemically stable and it is possible to use high voltage cathodes .
Mechanical stability: Oxide-based electrolytes are considered to be particularly mechanically stable by comparison , but they still suffer from a high susceptibility to dendrites growing along the grain boundary .
Manufacturability: The material is particularly hard and brittle during production. In addition, the electrolytes must be sintered at very high temperatures in order to achieve dense layers with low grain boundary resistances. Currently, the manufacturing process is therefore very complex and only wet chemical processing is possible . How to scale up to large quantities is currently still the subject of research .
Cost: Due to the difficulty of fabrication, because the material is hard and brittle, and because an energy-intensive sintering process is required, the electrolyte is expensive
Halide electrolytes: High pressure resistance and high conductivity, sensitive to humidity and temperature
The general chemical formula for halide electrolytes is Lia-M-Xb, which is derived from introducing high-valence transition metal cations M into lithium halides LiX (X = Br, Cl, F) to regulate the concentration of Li+ and vacancies, thereby forming compounds similar to Lia-M-Xb. Compared to oxides and sulfides, the interaction between the monovalent halide anion and Li+ is weaker and the radius is larger than that of S2? or O2?, greatly improving the room temperature ionic conductivity of the electrolyte. The theoretical ionic conductivity of the electrolyte can reach the order of 10?2 S/cm. At the same time, halides generally have a higher redox potential and are more compatible with high-voltage cathode materials, which can achieve stable cycling at high voltage windows and are considered to be very promising materials for all-solid-state lithium-ion batteries.
There are currently three common types of halide electrolytes: Lia-M-Cl6, Lia-M-Cl4, and Lia-M-Cl8 type halides, with the ionic conductivity of the first two types reaching 10-3S/cm. However, halide electrolytes are prone to phase transitions at different temperatures, which can affect conductivity, and they are easily hydrolyzed in the air, resulting in high synthesis costs. In addition, the reaction between transition metals and lithium metal leads to poor compatibility with lithium anodes.
Solid-state battery cathode materials
Cathode materials for solid-state batteries mainly include: lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2), lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4), lithium nickel oxide (LiNiO2), and lithium aluminum oxide (LiAlO2).
Lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2): A commonly used cathode material in lithium-ion batteries, it can provide high energy density and long cycle life, but there are safety concerns.
Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4): Compared to lithium cobalt oxide, lithium iron phosphate has better safety and longer lifespan, but lower energy density.
Lithium nickel oxide (LiNiO2): High energy density and long cycle life, but the material is expensive and has safety issues.
Lithium aluminum oxide (LiAlO2): High energy density, but the cycle life is slightly lower than that of lithium nickel oxide.
Various material combinations in solid-state electrolytes: For example, lithium manganate (LiMn2O4) and lithium titanate (Li4Ti5O12), which can provide higher safety and longer lifespan, but have relatively lower energy density.
Solid-state battery anode materials
Anode materials for solid-state batteries mainly include three types: metallic lithium, carbon materials, and silicon materials.
Metallic lithium is primarily used in solid-state lithium-ion batteries and solid-state lithium-sulfur batteries. Solid-state lithium-ion batteries are high-energy-density batteries that can be applied in fields such as electric vehicles and drones; solid-state lithium-sulfur batteries, on the other hand, are high-energy-density and high-safety batteries that can be applied in aerospace and military fields.
Carbon materials are mainly used in solid-state lithium-ion batteries. Carbon nanotubes, a common type of carbon material, have a high specific surface area and excellent electrochemical performance, making them suitable for high-performance solid-state lithium-ion batteries.
Silicon material is an emerging anode material with high specific capacity and lower cost. In solid-state batteries, silicon materials can react with solid electrolytes to form lithium ions, thereby enabling the charging and discharging of the battery. Compared to metallic lithium and carbon materials, silicon materials have a higher specific capacity, but they have poorer cycle stability and are prone to volume expansion and structural damage. Silicon materials are mainly used in solid-state lithium-ion batteries. Silicon nanowires, a common type of silicon material, have a high specific surface area and excellent electrochemical performance, making them suitable for high-performance solid-state lithium-ion batteries.
Solid-state battery separator
Separator materials are an important component of solid-state batteries, mainly used to isolate the positive and negative electrodes to prevent electronic conduction. The composition of separator materials mainly includes polymers, nanoscale powders, etc. Research suggests that a double-layer coating can replace the separator, with an inorganic solid-state electrolyte layer coated on both sides of the anode, and an organic polymer layer coated on the surface of the inorganic solid-state electrolyte layer. Currently, there is a view that sulfide and oxide all-solid-state batteries do not need a separator. In addition, various patents for solid-state batteries that have been made public have also proposed the concept of composite separators, such as inorganic-organic composite separators.
Advantages of solid-state batteries compared to liquid batteries
Solid-state batteries possess significant advantages of high energy density and high safety, making them the next generation of high-performance lithium batteries. In terms of performance comparison, theoretically, solid-state batteries excel in various indicators such as ionic conductivity, energy density, high-voltage resistance, high-temperature endurance, and cycle life, all of which are superior to those of liquid batteries. They combine the high energy density and high safety characteristics that traditional liquid lithium batteries cannot offer, making them the ideal batteries for electric vehicles.
High safety
Liquid lithium batteries are prone to thermal runaway. Factors such as overcharging, impact, short circuit, and immersion in water can increase the risk of thermal runaway. When the temperature rises to 90°C, the SEI film on the negative electrode surface begins to decompose, exposing the lithium-embedded carbon directly to the electrolyte, which reacts and releases heat, generating a large amount of flammable gases, and then melting the separator to form an internal short circuit. When the temperature rises to 200°C, it promotes the gasification and decomposition of the electrolyte, causing the battery to undergo intense combustion and explosion.
Compared to liquid lithium batteries, solid-state batteries have five major safety features. 1) The solid electrolyte has high mechanical strength, which can suppress the growth of lithium dendrites and prevent short circuits. 2) It is not easily flammable or explosive. 3) There are no ongoing side reactions at the interface. 4) There is no issue with electrolyte leakage or drying. 5) The lifespan at high temperatures is unaffected or better.
High energy density
Energy density = operating voltage × specific capacity. The energy density of traditional liquid batteries has already approached the theoretical limit of 350Wh/kg, while solid-state batteries can achieve more than 500Wh/kg, which are not at all in the same league in terms of energy density. Solid-state batteries have a wide electrochemical window and can withstand higher voltages (above 5V), with a broader range of materials to choose from. Since the energy density of a battery is equal to the operating voltage multiplied by the specific capacity, and the overall specific capacity of the battery follows the barrel effect, it is limited by the lower end of the positive and negative electrodes.
Currently, in solid-state batteries, the specific capacity of graphite anode is 372mA?h/g, the theoretical specific capacity of silicon-based anode is 4200mA?h/g, and the theoretical specific capacity of lithium metal anode is 3860mA?h/g, all of which are significantly higher than that of the cathode. Therefore, the cathode material has become the main bottleneck for further performance improvement of lithium-ion batteries. The all-solid-state electrolyte can not only be compatible with the above high specific capacity anode materials and conventional cathode material systems but also match high specific capacity cathode materials, making the energy density reach 500Wh/kg or even higher.
Wide temperature range operation
Traditional liquid batteries have a relatively narrow operating temperature range. At low temperatures, the performance of liquid batteries decreases due to increased viscosity of the electrolyte, reduced ionic conductivity, increased interfacial impedance and charge transfer impedance between the electrolyte and electrodes, and reduced lithium ion migration rate. In addition, liquid batteries are limited at high temperatures due to the low flash point of the electrolyte and the low melting temperature of the separator, posing a risk of combustion. Solid-state electrolyte batteries, on the other hand, do not have the issue of electrolyte solidification at low temperatures, and are less affected and safer at high temperatures, thus having a larger operating temperature range, reaching from -40°C to 150°C, which is significantly superior to liquid batteries.
Compact size
Traditional liquid batteries require the use of a separator and electrolyte, which together occupy nearly 40% of the battery's volume and 25% of its mass. Solid-state batteries replace the separator and electrolyte of liquid batteries with a solid electrolyte, allowing the distance between the anode and cathode to be reduced to just a few to several tens of micrometers, thereby significantly reducing the thickness of the battery. As a result, for the same amount of electrical charge, the volume of solid-state batteries will be smaller.
Development path of solid-state batteries
As the content of liquid electrolyte gradually decreases, the development path of solid-state batteries can generally be divided into semi-solid (5-10wt%), quasi-solid (0-5wt%), and all-solid (0wt%) stages, among which semi-solid and quasi-solid batteries use mixed solid-liquid electrolytes. Currently, on a global scale, all-solid-state batteries are mainly in the research and development and prototyping stages. The main limitations hindering the industrialization of all-solid-state batteries are: the material and manufacturing technologies are not yet mature, and the production costs are too high. The industry generally believes that it will take at least another 5 years for all-solid-state batteries to achieve large-scale industrialization. Before all-solid-state batteries officially enter the commercialization phase, semi-solid batteries may be a good transitional technical solution. Semi-solid batteries use a mixed solid-liquid electrolyte, with the content of the electrolyte in the battery ranging between 5-10%. By adding a solid electrolyte coating, its electrochemical principle is the same as that of liquid lithium batteries, and it can basically continue to use the existing mature battery manufacturing processes, which are less difficult to produce than solid-state batteries. Compared with traditional liquid lithium batteries, semi-solid batteries have significantly improved performance, with advantages including better safety, higher energy density, better flexibility, longer cycle life, wider operating temperature range, and resistance to compression and vibration. Therefore, semi-solid batteries have become a transitional technology from liquid batteries to all-solid-state batteries.
The three main technological pathways for solid-state batteries
There are three main technological pathways for solid-state batteries: polymer solid-state batteries, oxide solid-state batteries, and sulfide solid-state batteries. The different technological routes of solid-state batteries are primarily distinguished by different solid electrolytes. According to the classification of solid electrolytes, there are three main technological routes: polymer electrolytes, oxide electrolytes, and sulfide electrolytes. Polymer electrolytes belong to organic electrolytes, while oxide and sulfide electrolytes belong to inorganic electrolytes.
The ideal solid electrolyte material should have high ionic conductivity, chemical and electrochemical stability towards lithium metal, be able to effectively suppress the formation of lithium dendrites, have low manufacturing costs, and not require the use of rare metals. However, the three main technological routes each have their pros and cons, and there is no single one that can meet all the above requirements at the same time, and there are still certain difficulties in technological breakthroughs. Overall, sulfide electrolytes are considered to have the most potential for development in all-solid-state batteries.
Polymer electrolytes: The advantages of polymers are their ease of processing, compatibility with existing electrolyte production equipment and processes, and good mechanical properties. Their disadvantages include: (1) low ionic conductivity, requiring heating to 60°C to enable normal charging and discharging; (2) poor chemical stability, not suitable for high-voltage cathode materials, and prone to combustion at high temperatures; (3) a narrow electrochemical window, and when the potential difference is too large (>4V), the electrolyte is prone to electrolysis, limiting the performance of polymers.
Oxide electrolytes: Their advantages lie in better conductivity and stability, with higher ionic conductivity than polymers, thermal stability up to 1000°C, and good mechanical and electrochemical stability. Their disadvantages include: (1) compared to sulfides, their ionic conductivity is relatively low, which can lead to a series of issues such as limited capacity and rate performance in the performance improvement process of oxide solid-state batteries; (2) oxides are very hard, leading to rigid interface contact issues in solid-state batteries, and under simple room temperature cold pressing, the porosity of the battery is very high, which may prevent the battery from functioning properly.
Sulfide electrolytes: They have the highest ionic conductivity, good mechanical properties, and a wide electrochemical stability window (above 5V), showing excellent performance, and have the greatest potential for development in all-solid-state batteries. Their disadvantages include: (1) unstable interfaces, prone to side reactions with cathode and anode materials, resulting in high interface impedance and increased internal resistance; (2) in terms of manufacturing processes, the preparation of sulfide solid-state batteries is more complex, and sulfides are prone to react with water and oxygen in the air to produce highly toxic hydrogen sulfide gas.
Among them, polymer electrolytes have developed most rapidly, with relatively mature technology, and are the earliest to promote commercial applications, having achieved small-scale mass production. However, they have the disadvantage of low conductivity and a lower performance limit, and have not yet been widely adopted. Oxide electrolytes show a more balanced performance in all aspects and are currently progressing rapidly. Sulfide electrolytes have higher conductivity and the most excellent performance, making them most suitable for electric vehicles, with great commercial potential, but the research difficulty is also high, and how to maintain high stability remains to be solved. Achieving technological breakthroughs in key issues of solid electrolytes will likely accelerate the process of industrialization.
Technical challenges and solutions in solid-state battery technology
The development of solid-state electrolytes faces three major scientific issues. The mechanisms of ion transport in solid-state electrolytes, the growth mechanism of lithium dendrites in lithium metal anodes, and the failure mechanisms of multi-field coupling systems are the core scientific issues faced by the development of solid-state batteries. Solving these problems is essential for creating new solid-state electrolyte materials, optimizing the physicochemical performance of solid-state batteries, and promoting the development of solid-state batteries.
The comprehensive performance of solid-state battery electrolytes is difficult to balance. In terms of material characteristics, whether it is polymers, oxides, or sulfides, their overall performance as solid-state electrolytes is not satisfactory. For example, polymer electrolytes are easy to process and have low production difficulty, but they have low ionic conductivity, which affects charging and discharging performance. Oxide and sulfide electrolytes have higher conductivity, safety, and mechanical strength, but their manufacturing difficulty is greater and costs are higher.
Solution approach: Composite electrolytes integrate the advantages of multiple materials. Therefore, the idea of composite materials is to use different materials in combination, hoping to take advantage of both. Polymer/polymer composite electrolyte materials have stronger processability, and both mechanical strength and ionic conductivity are improved. For polymer/inorganic (oxide/sulfide) composite electrolyte materials, they combine the characteristics of polymers and oxides/sulfides, achieving a comprehensive integration of high strength and better flexibility, conductivity, and easy preparation.
The bottleneck of all-solid-state batteries mainly lies in the slower charging and discharging speed and the faster capacity decay. Ionic conductivity is the key to improving the charging and discharging speed of all-solid-state batteries. The ion transport performance in solid-state electrolytes is jointly determined by the transport process of ions in the bulk and at the interface. Compared with liquid electrolytes, the interaction force between ions in solid-state electrolytes is strong, and the ion migration energy barrier is more than ten times that of liquids, resulting in low ionic conductivity.
High mechanical strength solid-state electrolytes still find it difficult to completely suppress the growth of lithium dendrites and achieve uniform deposition of lithium metal. Studies have shown that inorganic solid-state electrolytes with high shear modulus cannot completely prevent lithium dendrites from penetrating through the solid-state electrolyte. Lithium dendrites are still an important factor hindering the practical application of all-solid-state batteries. For example, the shear modulus of oxide solid-state electrolytes is more than ten times that of lithium metal (above 50GPa), and the growth of lithium dendrites can still cause short circuits in solid-state batteries.
The reduction in stability caused by solid-solid interface contact is the main reason for battery failure. The interface of solid-state batteries is solid-solid contact, and the conductivity is often hindered by high contact resistance at the interface between the electrode and the electrolyte. High impedance increases overpotential, leading to capacity decay and reduced energy density. The main sources of high impedance at the interface are: (1) the interface issue between the solid-state electrolyte and the anode; (2) the interface issue between the solid-state electrolyte and the composite cathode; (3) the micro-interface issue between the cathode active material and the solid-state electrolyte within the composite cathode.
Solution approach: Interface engineering and modification, achieving improvement through two dimensions of materials and processes. Material dimension: Select Li metal anode and coated composite cathode. On the anode side, using Li alloys with smaller volume changes as anodes to alleviate anode expansion issues, macroscopic interface problems, and selecting more stable solid-state electrolytes to reduce the occurrence of side reactions at the interface. At the micro-interface of the composite cathode, surface coating can be used to reduce interface stress and improve the efficiency of ion and electron transport.
Process dimension: Macroscopic interface issues, by increasing the pressure during the manufacturing process to eliminate pores and enhance interface contact, or by in-situ solidification, injecting liquid into the solid-state battery, and after sealing, solidifying the liquid by heating or other means to enhance the interface contact between the solid-state electrolyte and the electrode.
Economic costs of solid-state batteries and solutions
The supply chain for raw materials and the manufacturing equipment for solid-state batteries are not yet perfected. Currently, some raw materials for solid-state batteries have not been mass-produced, and the overall industry chain is not yet complete, resulting in high battery manufacturing costs. Moreover, as a new type of battery, the manufacturing process for solid-state batteries lacks specific equipment, such as sintering, vacuum, drying rooms, and specific atmospheres, all of which will increase the manufacturing costs of solid-state batteries. The cost of electrode materials for solid-state batteries is high. Oxide cathode materials are mainly made from inorganic materials such as aluminum oxide and titanium oxide; sulfide cathode materials are composed of sulfur, sulfides, and polymers; and polymer cathodes are made up of various polymer compounds such as polycarbonates and cellulose. For example, the high cost of germanium hinders mass production for the LGPS-type sulfide electrolyte, which has considerable performance.
Solution approach: Semi-solid first, scale to reduce material costs. Semi-solid-state batteries are relatively mature in technology and are closer to liquid lithium-ion batteries. If the industrialization of semi-solid-state batteries can be achieved, then with the increase in production capacity of the corresponding solid-state electrolytes and the reduction of raw material costs, as well as process optimization, the cost of raw materials and production is expected to decrease.
Global companies' layout in solid-state battery technology
Toyota + Panasonic (Japan)
Main technology route: Sulfide
Progress: Since 2004, Toyota has been developing all-solid-state batteries, accumulating rich technology and patents; in January 2019, it announced the establishment of a new company with Panasonic to develop solid-state batteries by 2020, and exhibited a sample of solid-state batteries in May; in 2020, it launched a new energy vehicle equipped with solid-state batteries, planning for mass production by 2025.
Hitachi Shipbuilding (Japan)
Main technology route: Sulfide
Progress: Launched all-solid-state battery (AS-LiB), first applied in the aerospace field, planning to apply to the automotive market after 2025.
Samsung SDI + SKI + LG Chem (South Korea)
Main technology route: Sulfide
Progress: In 2017, Samsung SDI exhibited a solid-state battery; in 2018, the three companies cooperated and established a 10 billion won fund to jointly invest in solid-state lithium batteries and other new generation battery technologies, accelerating the commercialization process of core technologies; in 2020, Samsung SDI released the latest scientific research results of solid-state batteries, the silver-carbon-based all-solid-state battery can achieve a high energy density of 900Wh/L, a long cycle life of over 1000 cycles, and a Coulomb efficiency of 99.8%, allowing the car to drive 800 kilometers after one charge.
Bollore (France)
Main technology route: Polymer
Progress: First to use electric vehicles equipped with solid-state batteries, launched the Bluecar in 2011, equipped with a 30kWh polymer (LMP) battery.
Solid Power (USA)
Main technology route: Polymer
Progress: Derived from the scientific research achievements of the University of Colorado at Boulder, has been invested by BMW, Hyundai, Samsung, and other companies, in 2019, it cooperated with Ford to develop a new generation of electric vehicle solid-state batteries; in October 2020, Solid Power announced the production and delivery of its first-generation 2Ah all-solid-state battery (ASSB), with an energy density of 320Wh/kg, the product is ready to be launched in the market in 2021, and is planned to be applied in the automotive field in 2026.
Solid energy system (USA)
Main Technology Route: Polymer
Progress: Founded by researchers from MIT, raised $30 million from companies such as General Motors; in 2020, SES cooperated with Foxconn and CATL in the power battery field, and planned to launch solid-state batteries in 2024; in 2021, it reached a cooperative relationship with General Motors, as part of the agreement, the two companies plan to build a prototype factory in Woburn, Massachusetts, with the goal of having a high-capacity pre-production battery before 2023.
Ionic Materials (USA)
Main technology route: Polymer
Progress: In 2018, it received investment from the Renault-Nissan-Mitsubishi alliance; by 2025, Renault's electric vehicles plan to use solid-state batteries with zero cobalt content, supported by Ionic Materials.
Quantum Scape (USA)
Main technological approach: Oxide
Progress: Received funding from Volkswagen, with Volkswagen holding a 5% stake in 2014; additional investment of $100 million in June 2018; further investment of $200 million in June 2020; the collaborative goal is to achieve mass production of solid-state batteries before 2025.
Why QuantumScape and Solid Power are Interesting
Let’s dive into QuantumScape first. It feels like everytime we talk about SSBs, they seem to show up. Based in California, QuantumScape has spent years leading up to their first commercial product, the QSE-5 solid state battery. Previously, QuantumScape has said they were aiming for commercial battery production in 2024, and credit where it’s due, they’re pretty close to hitting that deadline.
One of QuantumScape’s core innovations is their anode-free battery, which sounds bananas. As I mentioned earlier all batteries have an anode and cathode. Normally a silicon or graphite anode stores the lithium atoms until they are ready to be discharged. Instead, they’re using a highly dendrite-resistant solid electrolyte separator. This allows the lithium metal itself to act as the anode. Ordinarily, the lithium has to diffuse through another anode material, which creates a bottleneck that slows charging speed. But Quantumscape’s method eliminates this bottleneck, so its battery is far more energy dense. The end result: shorter travel distance for ions and overall faster charging.
SSBs charge fast alright — that’s part of the draw. But by eliminating the anode bottleneck, QuantumScape’s battery can charge to full in less than 15 minutes. This is especially important for the world of electric vehicles (EVs). Along with range-anxiety, one of the remaining EV-adoption hurdles is charge time. As long as it’s faster to fill a gas tank than charge a battery, some people are going to have their doubts about EVs. That’s why QuantumScape is angling for the EV market.
Speaking of the market, that’s another benefit of the anode-less design: Quatumscape doesn’t need to spend money on making an anode. Considering that cost is one of the things holding back SSBs, every little bit helps. It also saves some space and weight, which again, are important considerations in the EV-world.
And there’s yet more benefits to QuantumScape’s design: it increases the batteries lifespan. The anode is where a lot of those nasty, life-shortening chemical reactions take place. Without that anode, QuantumScape claims their battery can go for 2,000+ cycles. Most lithium EV batteries can run for around 1,500 to 2,000 cycles, so QSE-5 isn’t lagging here.11
Another neat feature of the QSE-5 is its housing. Lithium-metal batteries like the QSE-5 have a tendency to balloon up if you fast-charge them. If you’re planning to stack a bunch of these batteries together, like for an EV battery pack, this can be difficult to engineer around. So QuantumScape has forgone the usual cylindrical battery frame, opting for a combo box-and-pouch they’re calling the FlexFrame.. There’s a central pouch that’s built to swell, and when it does, it rises until it’s flush with the boxy frame. This little engineering trick ensures that the batteries have room to grow and shrink while remaining tightly stackable. Pretty clever when you’re trying to maximize the space, weight and energy density for an EV.
Let’s turn now to Colorado-based Solid Power. Rather than changing up their architecture, they’ve got a novel battery formulation. The company has three batteries that are approaching commercialization, all with a sulfide-based solid electrolyte separator. We’ll focus on their Silicon EV battery though, because that’s the furthest along.14 Their solid sulfide separator offers the usual SSB benefits along with its own interesting perks.
Sulfides have great ionic conductivity, with some even close to liquid electrolytes. This means that lithium ions can travel through sulfide-based separators with less resistance, helping with faster charging times. They’re also flexible, so they can roll with punches instead of snapping like more common and brittle glass or ceramic SSB separators. These materials have shown remarkable heat resistance, which is great because batteries, even solid state ones, do tend to get pretty hot. And recent studies suggest sulfides can be moisture resistant when properly treated. Considering how temperamental solid electrolytes can be around moisture, this has the potential to make manufacturing much easier.
Ease of manufacturing might be sulfide’s greatest strength. Sulfide SSBs can be produced with roll-to-roll battery manufacturing equipment, which is very common in the industry. And sulfides can be manufactured relatively cheaply from abundant materials too, helping them avoid many supply chain issues. All together, Solid Power claims they can manufacture its SSBs for cost savings of 15-35% less than their competitors.15 Seeing as the price is one of the major limiting factors of SSBs, that kind of cost saving is nothing to sneeze at.
Now that you have a handle on who we’re dealing with, let’s dive into the nitty-gritty stats. Which battery is better for an EV? Which will hit the market first? And what challenges still remain?
QuantumScape & Solid Power Pros & Cons
Rather than slow things down by listing off the stats one-by-one, we’ve got a graphic for you.
In addition to the QSE-5 and Solid Power’s EV battery, I’ve also added Solid Power’s other batteries. And for the sake of context, we compare these batteries with Tesla’s 4680 cylindrical cells, currently used in the popular Tesla Model Y, and now with the Cybertruck.
Let’s look first at volumetric density. This is a measure of how much energy a battery can store within one liter of its volume. The denser the battery, the bigger the “tank,” so to speak. Tesla weighs in at around 622 Wh/L, the QSE-5 beats that by about 200 watt-hours, and that in turn is bested by Solid Power by around a hundred watt-hours and change.
There’s no definitive evidence or statement for how far a car with QSE-5 or Solid Power EV battery will go on a single charge. However, the less dense Tesla Model Ys are estimated to run for 300 to 330 miles (or 482 to 531 KM) on a single charge, so it’s likely the SSBs will rove for a fair bit further.
Next we have cycle life … and I’m not talking about e-bikes. This is the amount of times a battery can be fully charged and then fully discharged before its capacity starts to fall off significantly. You can see that Tesla clocks in between 1000-2000 cycles. Solid Power fits on the lower end while the QSE-5 leans toward the upper end.
Now let’s talk charge time. Tesla’s batteries can “supercharge” in 15 to 25 minutes, but it’s not recommended. Charging your car this fast on a daily basis can really shorten its lifespan. Tesla says you should go for a more casual home charging method that’ll give you a full charge in 8 to 12 hours. But solid state batteries? Both QSE-5 and Solid Power’s batteries can readily do charge times of 15 minutes with minimal side effects, though they achieve this through very different methods.
For Solid Power, sulfides’ softness is the solution (try saying that 10 times fast). Just like it’s easier to swim through water than Jell-O, it’s easier for ions to move through the softer sulfides than some other separators. Fast, smooth-sailin’ ions equals fast charge times. Meanwhile, QuantumScape is fast because their oxide separator can handle higher voltages. This is a clunky explanation, but a higher voltage means we can “force” more ions through the separator. In this case, more ions equals fast charge times. Higher voltages tend to speed up dendrite growth and cut into the battery’s lifespan, but the QSE-5 is tough enough to handle ‘em.9
Last, but far from least, there’s the release dates. Which battery is making it to the market first? Both companies are already capable of making small batches of their batteries. QuantumScape hasn’t issued an official commercialization timeline. The company is pleased with the small batches it can do right now and is preparing to introduce and scale-up their “Cobra” production system in 2025.
QuantumScape claims that this will allow them to mass-produce solid state batteries at the gigawatt scale. From there it shouldn’t be too much longer to full commercialization. Solid Power hasn’t issued an official mass market goal date either, though their CEO, John Van Scoter, told the Denver Post last September that he predicts 2028 will be the year that EVs are regularly powered by SSBs, Solid Power’s included. So while neither battery is hitting the market next year, these are significant milestones, and it’s looking like we truly have broken away from the “just another 5 years, please” catchphrase.
I do want to temper some of the excitement by drawing attention to the engineering problems that still remain for each style of SSB. For sulfides, their vulnerability to dendrites still needs to be addressed. We’ve found a few ways to tackle this issue but none of them are perfect. Running the sulfide battery extra hot fights dendrite growth, but it also means adding extra heat management devices. That cuts into the cost and weight. We could put the sulfide battery under pressure, but that’s tricky to do outside of the lab. Running the battery on low power could also work. Though, it’s a bummer to have a high performance battery and not let it perform highly.
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QuantumScape’s oxides have their own issues. Most notably, it’s still challenging to mass produce them. This is because they must be sintered together at very high temperatures, an expensive and energy intensive process. Meanwhile, sulfides can be made relatively cheaply and easily with some common industry techniques like roll-to-roll processing.
Which is Better?
So, which battery is better? There’s no clear cut answer. They’re at slightly different stages of maturity, with different strengths and weaknesses. As we often find with these sorts of things, neither is a silver bullet. I think each one will settle into its own niche.
I want to re-emphasize that the outlook for both batteries is promising, at least at the time of writing. Last year, QuantumScape deployed the very-cool sounding “Raptor,” a high speed throughput separator process that allowed them to efficiently produce some QSE-5 prototypes for its auto company partners like Volkswagen. It’s planning on shipping their A2 round of samples to its partners for further testing this year. But if you liked Raptor, you’re gonna love Cobra. We mentioned it a moment ago, but Cobra is the upgrade to Raptor, and should help QuantumScape affordably mass produce its oxide separator at triple the current speed. That said, the QuantumScape team does caution that the Cobra is a work in progress, so it’s not like the manufacturing challenges are done and dusted.
For their part, late last year Solid Power inked a deal with SK Group, the biggest company in Korea behind Samsung. This three-year contract gave Solid Power a $20 million boost40 on top of an earlier $130 million investment from Ford.41 Thanks to this kind of support, Solid Power is already capable of producing 1.1 million metric tons of their sulfide electrolyte per month! The company’s own A1 cells are already out the door, and it’s planning to have its A2 cells out soon.
With that in mind, I still want to be careful and not overhype SSBs and feed into the idea that they’re a holy grail and the thing to hold out hope for. SSBs are going to be huge when they hit, but they need a little more time. So if you’ve been waiting until SSBs are around to switch to EVs or install home energy storage, I’d quit waiting and get the product that fits your needs today.
Lithium-ion batteries power much of our technology; from the mobile phones in our pockets to large battery-powered trucks. But solid-state batteries may be a?more powerful, compact, safe, and sustainable option, especially for electric vehicles.
Road travel accounts for approximately 15% of all global CO2 emissions. It’s why many governments around the world have recently set ambitious targets to ensure that all new car sales will be zero emission by 2035.
Countries that have made this pledge include the UK, Singapore, Canada, Chile and all countries that are within the European Economic Area (EEA). Add to this some of the US’s wealthiest and most populous states, such as New York and California, and there is a?global appetite for change.?
This is one of the factors boosting the demand for electric vehicles (EVs), sales of which have been growing exponentially in the UK and around the world. Now, the race is on to ensure that battery technology and production can keep?pace.?
The limitations of current EV batteries
EVs are powered by lithium-ion batteries, a?technology that’s in huge demand but which faces some serious challenges on the road ahead. Their current iterations are expensive and heavy, whilst there are also doubts over their longevity and safety – particularly in the event of accidents.?
The growth in EV manufacturing and the role of battery storage for electricity in the power grid, also means there’s concern about the growing need for critical minerals like cobalt, copper, nickel and lithium. This is prompting battery and EV manufacturers to explore alternatives, such as solid-state batteries.?
What are the differences between lithium-ion and solid-state batteries?
Lithium-ion batteries consist of electrical contacts alongside four other main components:
When you turn on a?car that uses a?lithium-ion battery, it closes and connects the circuit the battery is part of. This causes the positively charged lithium ions to move through the liquid electrolyte, and the separator, from anode to the cathode. This causes chemical reactions that generate electrons, which move in the opposite direction in the external circuit and generate the electrical current powering the car. When charging, the ions and current move in reverse.
In contrast, solid-state batteries contain a?solid lithium metal anode and a?solid ceramic electrolyte – which also acts as the separator. Here, the separator becomes part of the solid medium through which the lithium ions move. When charging, the lithium ions form a?solid layer of lithium on the anode. This has a?smaller volume than the anode in a?lithium-ion battery – meaning more energy can be generated by a?smaller battery.?
The advantages of solid-state batteries
Solid-state batteries make a?good alternative to conventional lithium-ion batteries for several reasons:?
QuantumScape & Solid Power Pros & Cons
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION ANSWERS
What are the basics of solid-state batteries?
How do solid-state batteries work? Solid-state batteries have almost the same mechanism as lithium-ion batteries for extracting electricity from the batteries. Metal is used as the material for the electrodes, and electrical flow is generated by ions moving through the electrolyte between the cathode and anode.
What is special about solid-state batteries?
Claims of higher energy density, much faster recharging, and better safety are why solid-state-battery technology appears to be the next big thing for EV batteries. Solid-state cells promise faster recharging, better safety, and higher energy density.
What are all solid-state batteries?
All-solid-state lithium batteries (ASSLIBs) employed inorganic solid electrolytes are attracting increasing interest for electrochemical energy storage devices due to their advantages of high safety, high energy density, wide operating temperature range and long cycle life.
What is the lifespan of a solid-state battery?
One of the key benefits of solid-state batteries is their higher energy density, which translates to longer range and extended lifespan compared to lithium-ion batteries. While lithium-ion batteries typically last for 1,500 to 2,000 charge cycles, solid-state batteries are capable of enduring 8,000 to 10,000 cycles.
Who leads in solid-state battery?
ProLogium Technology is currently the world's only solid-state battery manufacturer that has reached mass production and continues to inspire global battery innovation towards a fully electric, sustainable future.
Do iphones use solid-state batteries?
TDK, the company that supplies most of Apple's iPhone batteries, is hard at work on solid-state battery technology, but its recent breakthroughs are only usable in watch-sized batteries.
What is the latest battery technology in 2024?
Dec. 25, 2024 — A research team develops manganese-based cathodes with longer lifespan by suppressing oxygen ... Dec. 20, 2024 — Researchers have developed a new material for sodium-ion batteries, sodium vanadium phosphate, that delivers higher voltage and greater energy .
What are the disadvantages of solid-state batteries?
DISADVANTAGES OF SOLID STATE BATTERIES Another significant disadvantage especially of all solid state batteries is high resistance at the electrode/solid electrolyte interface that hinders fast charging and discharging. Solid-state batteries are more complex to manufacture compared to traditional lithium-ion batteries.
Who invented the solid-state battery?
winner John Goodenough
Fermi award winner John Goodenough, known since 1980 as the father of the lithium-ion battery, has produced another breakthrough, the solid-state battery.
Which battery has the longest lifespan?
Lithium batteries
Lithium batteries generally last longer and perform better than other types of batteries. Like lead-acid batteries, for example. Lithium batteries currently have the longest lifespan of all available deep-cycle batteries. Many can last between 3,000 and 5,000 partial cycles.
What materials are used in solid-state batteries?
Silicon materials are mainly used in solid-state lithium-ion batteries. Silicon nanowires, a common type of silicon material, have a high specific surface area and excellent electrochemical performance, making them suitable for high-performance solid-state lithium-ion batteries.
Are solid-state batteries the future?
They're safer and charge faster than current lithium-ion batteries, and they're stable in the face of high voltages, high temperatures and temperature changes. It is no surprise that solid-state batteries are considered a technology of the future and will probably be the next big step in battery development.
Which company is best for battery?
Best Battery Companies in India: An Overview
Who supplies batteries to Apple?
TDK Corp.
(Bloomberg) -- TDK Corp., one of the main suppliers of batteries for Apple Inc.'s iPhones, will this year roll out an improved version of its most advanced product to help mobile devices keep up with the rising power demands of built-in AI.
What temperature is a solid-state battery?
Solid electrolytes enable a broader range of operating temperatures and voltages, which is crucial for high performance applications. SSBs can operate at temperatures above 60 °C, where traditional are generally only able to operate from -20 to 60 °C.
Does Toyota have a solid-state battery?
Toyota's future EV battery plans Toyota also claimed to have discover a “technological breakthrough” with all-solid-state EV batteries. Its first solid-state batteries are due out around 2028 with over 620 miles (1,000 km) WLTP range and 10-minute fast charging.
Is there a 2025 battery?
2025 Lithium Coin Battery with Bitter Coating. Duracell has a tradition of investing in extensive development in features that can help keep children safe, specifically for its lithium coin batteries. Its latest innovation is a bitter coating on the cell that is designed to help discourage accidental swallowing.
What is the biggest challenge for solid-state batteries?
Complexity and scalability: Producing solid-state batteries involves complex, difficult-to-scale fabrication processes and costly solid electrolyte materials that provide high ionic conductivity, mechanical strength, and stability.
Who is developing solid-state batteries?
QuantumScape
QuantumScape is a company dedicated to developing solid-state lithium batteries for electric cars. Backers include Volkswagen and Bill Gates. Solid Power develops solid-state cell and high-tech sulphide solid electrolyte batteries. Major partners include BMW and Ford.
How expensive is a solid-state battery?
For solid-state batteries, they differentiate depending on the anode: with a 20% excess of lithium in the lithium metal anode, they calculate a price of about $75 per kWh; with a 300% excess, they determine a price of 128 kWh per kWh [7]. The comparison of costs is shown in Figure 1.
Who is the father of battery?
Figure 2: Alessandro Volta, inventor of the electric battery. Volta's discovery of the decomposition of water by an electrical current laid the foundation of electrochemistry.
What brand is solid-state battery?
ProLogium Technology is currently the world's only solid-state battery manufacturer that has reached mass production and continues to inspire global battery innovation towards a fully electric, sustainable future.
What is the problem with solid-state batteries?
Other important challenges are cost and usability. The handling and manufacturing of solid-state batteries are more complex, which is reflected in the cost. This also prohibits the mass production and integration of these types of batteries in everyday use. Other restrictions are caused due to useability.
What is the world's most durable battery?
The Bell has produced approximately 10 billion rings since 1840 and holds the Guinness World Record as "the world's most durable battery [delivering] ceaseless tintinnabulation".
Which brand of battery is the best?
In our research, we've found Duracell, Energizer, Sony, GP Batteries, and PKCELL to be the standout brands for safety and reliability. Panasonic, Varta, Rayovac, and Tenergy offer an impressive range of products, with a strong focus on versatility.
6 ways solid-state batteries are better than lithium-ion alternatives in electric vehicles
What’s the difference between solid-state and lithium-ion batteries? How do lithium-ion batteries work and why are solid-state ones better in?EVs?
Lithium-ion batteries power much of our technology; from the mobile phones in our pockets to large battery-powered trucks. But solid-state batteries may be a?more powerful, compact, safe, and sustainable option, especially for electric vehicles.
Road travel accounts for approximately 15% of all global CO2 emissions. It’s why many governments around the world have recently set ambitious targets to ensure that all new car sales will be zero emission by 2035.
Countries that have made this pledge include the UK, Singapore, Canada, Chile and all countries that are within the European Economic Area (EEA). Add to this some of the US’s wealthiest and most populous states, such as New York and California, and there is a?global appetite for change.?
This is one of the factors boosting the demand for electric vehicles (EVs), sales of which have been growing exponentially in the UK and around the world. Now, the race is on to ensure that battery technology and production can keep?pace.?
The limitations of current EV batteries
EVs are powered by lithium-ion batteries, a?technology that’s in huge demand but which faces some serious challenges on the road ahead. Their current iterations are expensive and heavy, whilst there are also doubts over their longevity and safety – particularly in the event of accidents.?
The growth in EV manufacturing and the role of battery storage for electricity in the power grid , also means there’s concern about the growing need for critical minerals like cobalt, copper, nickel and lithium. This is prompting battery and EV manufacturers to explore alternatives, such as solid-state batteries.?
What are the differences between lithium-ion and solid-state batteries?
Lithium-ion batteries consist of electrical contacts alongside four other main components:
When you turn on a?car that uses a?lithium-ion battery, it closes and connects the circuit the battery is part of. This causes the positively charged lithium ions to move through the liquid electrolyte, and the separator, from anode to the cathode. This causes chemical reactions that generate electrons, which move in the opposite direction in the external circuit and generate the electrical current powering the car. When charging, the ions and current move in reverse.
In contrast, solid-state batteries contain a?solid lithium metal anode and a?solid ceramic electrolyte – which also acts as the separator. Here, the separator becomes part of the solid medium through which the lithium ions move. When charging, the lithium ions form a?solid layer of lithium on the anode. This has a?smaller volume than the anode in a?lithium-ion battery – meaning more energy can be generated by a?smaller battery.?
The advantages of solid-state batteries
Here are the key advantages of solid-state batteries:
? Increased Energy Density: One of the most significant advantages of solid-state batteries is their higher energy density. They can store more energy in the same amount of space compared to lithium-ion batteries. This feature is particularly crucial for electric vehicles, where space and weight are critical factors. Higher energy density means that EVs could potentially travel much longer distances on a single charge, addressing one of the primary concerns of EV adoption—range anxiety.
? Enhanced Safety: Safety is a critical issue with current lithium-ion batteries, which are prone to overheating and, in some cases, can catch fire or explode. The use of solid electrolytes eliminates the risk of leakage, which is a common cause of such failures. Additionally, solid-state batteries are more resistant to changes in temperature and physical damage, making them inherently safer.
? Longer Lifespan: Solid-state batteries are expected to have a much longer lifespan than their liquid-based counterparts. The solid electrolyte is less likely to degrade over time, meaning the battery can endure more charge-discharge cycles before its performance diminishes. This longevity could significantly reduce the cost of ownership for devices and vehicles that rely on these batteries, as replacements would be needed less frequently.
? Faster Charging: Solid-state batteries also promise faster charging times. The solid electrolyte allows for quicker ion movement, enabling the battery to recharge more rapidly. This is a crucial benefit for both consumer electronics and electric vehicles, where long charging times are often a drawback.
? Improved Cycling Stability: Solid-state batteries tend to have better cycling stability, meaning they maintain their performance over more charge-discharge cycles. This characteristic is particularly important for applications requiring long-term reliability, such as electric vehicles or grid storage systems.
? Higher Voltage Stability: Solid electrolytes can often withstand higher voltages without breaking down, enabling the development of high-voltage batteries. These batteries could deliver more power and improve the performance of high-demand devices and applications.
? Increased Energy Conversion Efficiency: Solid-state batteries can achieve higher energy conversion efficiency, meaning that less energy is lost as heat during charging and discharging. This efficiency not only improves battery performance but also reduces energy waste, contributing to overall energy conservation efforts.
Environmental Benefits and Sustainability
Beyond the technical advantages, solid-state batteries offer substantial environmental benefits. While lithium-ion batteries rely on cobalt, a critical mineral, solid-state batteries have the potential to reduce or eliminate the need for cobalt, making them a more sustainable option.
As the world grapples with the urgent need to reduce carbon emissions and combat climate change, the development of more sustainable energy storage solutions like solid-state batteries is crucial. By enabling the wider adoption of electric vehicles and renewable energy, solid-state batteries could play a pivotal role in the global shift toward a low-carbon future.
Challenges and the Road Ahead
Despite their immense potential, solid-state batteries are not without challenges. One of the primary hurdles is cost. Solid-state batteries are currently more expensive to produce than traditional lithium-ion batteries, largely due to the complexity of manufacturing solid electrolytes and the need for new production infrastructure.
However, industry experts are optimistic that these costs will decrease as the technology matures and economies of scale are achieved.
Another challenge is the development of suitable materials for the solid electrolyte. While several materials have shown promise, finding an electrolyte that offers high ionic conductivity, stability, and compatibility with existing battery components remains a key area of research.
Despite these challenges, progress is being made. Major automakers are investing heavily in solid-state battery research and development. Toyota, for example, plans to release a vehicle powered by a solid-state battery by 2025. Similarly, partnerships between battery manufacturers, automakers, and tech companies are accelerating the pace of innovation and bringing solid-state batteries closer to commercialization.
The future of energy storage is undeniably solid. Solid-state batteries hold the potential to overcome many of the limitations of current battery technologies, offering safer, more efficient, and environmentally friendly energy storage solutions. As the world moves toward a more sustainable future, the adoption of solid-state batteries will be a critical step in achieving widespread electrification and reducing our reliance on fossil fuels.
For the industry, the rise of solid-state batteries represents not just a technological shift but a profound opportunity to lead the charge in the next generation of energy storage solutions. Solid-state batteries are set to revolutionize the battery industry, offering a host of benefits that could transform everything from electric vehicles to renewable energy storage. While challenges remain, the potential rewards are immense, and many companies are leading the way in making this vision a reality. As we look to the future, it’s clear that the era of solid-state batteries is just beginning, and the impact of this technology will be felt for
APPLICATIONS:
Solid-state batteries have the potential to revolutionize energy storage and enable new applications due to their improved performance and safety characteristics. Presently, the practical applications of solid-state batteries are limited due to the technology being in a nascent stage but some of the potential applications of solid-state batteries include:
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