Social psychology in leadership development for P12 schools. Jared R. Lancer

The problem

According to social psychologists (Medvec, Madey, Gilovich, 1995), it is human nature for some to be happy or satisfied with a result when comparing it to “what might have been,” referred to as counterfactual thinking. This phenomenon was described in a study where bronze Olympic medalists were observed to seemingly be more satisfied than silver medalists because their thought pattern focused on the fact that at least they earned something rather than nothing.?Silver medalists on the other hand thought about how close they were to earning the gold and were disappointed. In P12 schools, the challenge is whether school leaders can engage a professional staff to not feel satisfied with close to 50% of the students reading proficiently. In other words, how do leaders inspire and motivate a professional staff to believe that all students will achieve at high levels and to assume responsibility for developing the knowledge and skills to consistently operationalize this belief? ?

The profession is in need of leadership development that fosters particular habits of mind and the type of ideology, purpose and commitment that is driven and not satisfied with even 75% of learners reading proficiently. Like silver medalists, this is about leadership that can keep teams engaged in continuous improvement to ensure that each child and all students meet outcomes, prepared to participate as socially responsible citizens with the knowledge, skills and agency to determine their own futures. What new knowledge, skills and thinking patterns then are needed to bring about this change? Achieving this reality requires that school leadership develop and apply particular patterns of reasoning to practice.

A clear understanding and appreciation of present leadership practice in traditional public schools is first in order. Traditional conceptions of leadership are framed around an individualistic and competitive ideology that is embedded within an understanding of how the world works which contributes to a corresponding context perpetuated in schools. This perspective results in assumptions, misinterpretations, deficit frames of reference and judgments regarding students, teachers and staff, families and community stakeholder groups. As a result, intergroup dynamics and communications in schools often do not promote harmony, mutual respect, collaboration and cooperation as well as teamwork, but rather one of competition, isolation and exclusion coupled with punitive practices. ?This context is responsible for creating mass shootings in public schools by current and former students who experience isolation, rejection and exclusion (Peck and Goodman, 2022; https://www.nytimes.com/live/2022/05/24/us/shooting-robb-elementary-uvalde). It is often the daily experience for particular learners as well as members of historically underserved groups to be labeled, misunderstood, mischaracterized and punished in the context of public schools.

Traditional leadership narrowly conceptualizes academic learning challenges, school violence and classroom conflict. Responses such as increased purchasing of computers and security as well as eliminating particular students, teachers or parents perpetuates continued failure (Schneider, Gruman, Coutts, 2005). This traditional way of perceiving does not address the underlying challenges rooted in human interaction in schools and identifying ways to address pedagogy, learning, the curriculum and the social context. ?This way of interpreting results in decision making that lacks depth of understanding of the social context and the adjustments necessary to systems and structures operating within schools. This problem of perception and interpretation is represented in public schools in the interactions among leadership and the professional staff and in working with students and families and the local community.?

The application of social psychology to practice can alternatively promote a more complex understanding of interpersonal communications and group dynamics (Schneider et al, 2005). As a result, leadership can develop a more collaborative, cooperative and supportive social context in public schools to better serve all students.

The Role of the Principal ???????????????????????????????????????????????

The school principal is responsible for modeling productive professional practices and fostering a positive and supportive social context for learning. ?Grounded in an ideology that supports high expectations for all students, modeling productive professional practice requires that leadership creates and encourages positive interpersonal relationships among teachers, students, families and the community.?At least five overarching themes reflect productive professional leadership practice in working with students, teachers, families and the community. These include: (1) Getting to know the beliefs and values, experiences, needs and concerns of teachers, students, families and the community; (2) Communicating and interacting with respect; (3) Facilitating and encouraging opportunities for teamwork and collaboration; (4) Providing opportunities to make decisions and take responsibility; and, (5) providing opportunities to recognize accomplishments, talents and contributions (Hollins, 6/5/2008).

Social psychology applied to traditional conceptions of leadership

Notwithstanding, a persisting problem in P12 schools is located in the ideology and practice of leadership rooted in a particular cognitive thought process.?The field of social psychology provides insight into better understanding this habit of mind and offers considerations for leadership development.

The traditional conception of leadership might be summarized by a pattern of reasoning referred to as an Extension-of-self. This habit of mind is reflected when a person’s understanding of how the world works is viewed as an Extension-of-self and as objective truth upon which to perceive and interpret others and social events which leads to assumptions and flawed judgment (Hollins, 2011). ?This pattern of reasoning in traditional conceptions of leadership is understood through application of principles of social psychology in accessibility, superficiality and overconfidence.

The principle of accessibility states that information that is most easily accessible has the greatest impact on one’s thoughts, feelings and behavior (Smith, Mackie, and Claypool, 2015). ?The degree to which information is familiar and within one’s schema or available cognitive heuristic, information processing is thereby limited to what is most easily accessible and requires the least amount of thought and effort (Stangor, Jhangiani, and Hammond, 2022; Coutts and Gruman, 2005).?Thus, processing fluency increases for example when information is considered salient and matches with a prior frame of reference or when information is favored because it seems to represent a familiar heuristic of what one might expect. Similarly, perceiving others and social events or analyzing information based upon an automatic or initial impression that reinforces the familiar leads to anchoring one’s thoughts from a prior frame of reference which can significantly reduce or prevent sufficient adjustments necessary for more effective decision making (Stangor et al, 2022).

In sum, highly accessible information is processed quickly, which has a significant influence on cognition, perception, and decisions. Moreover, information accessed rapidly does not necessarily lead to sound decision making and can promote bias, assumptions and judgment as well as narrow and surface level understandings leading to errors and failure.

Relatedly, superficial or automatic cognitive processing is represented when decisions are made quickly in the moment and without effort or thought (Smith et al, 2015; Stangor et al, 2022). An example is reflected in the primacy effect where information that is first presented or available tends to have a greater influence on decision making and provides a lens upon which to make judgments.

These patterns of thought are reflected in traditional conceptions of leadership and contribute to the problem of overconfidence, defined as holding an unrealistic or optimistic point of view and lacking a sense of awareness of limitations (Stangor et al, 2022). This problem in cognition results in a lack of planning and contributes to increased failure.?Overconfidence and a lack of awareness further projects biases and a false sense of consensus. Here, leadership projects a point of view onto the group and believes this way of thinking is representative of the professional staff. Leadership that does not invest substantive time and thinking to appreciate potential challenges in the present or future context combined with limited introspection regarding past difficulties and the adjustments needed increases the likelihood of failure.?

This cognitive thought pattern is routine in traditional leadership practice in public schools. For instance, under pressure to develop a plan to raise student performance, a team quickly presents a recommendation to attend off-site professional development and leadership concurs and submits the plan.?In conducting observations, teaching in classrooms may appear to be more didactic with perceived lower levels of student engagement, causing leadership to assign targeted coaching with provision of regular feedback. Particular learners and student groups are repeatedly sent to the office for disruptions and conflicts in the classroom. These students are reprimanded and reminded of respectful participation and behavior and perhaps their parents are contacted.?

Implementing what is first presented, making decisions based on what appears inconsistent with a contemporary best practice, and interpreting classroom conflict as a problem located within students lacks systematic cognitive processing and depth of understanding.?Systematic cognitive processing for depth of understanding requires careful observation and documentation including a focus, appreciation and consideration for child and adolescent growth and development, pedagogy, learning, the curriculum and the social context. In contrast, superficial and surface level understandings leads to assumptions and biases, judgment and ultimately errors that contributes to perpetual conflict, turbulence, discontinuity in learning as well as trauma and harm to students.

Aspects of social psychology offers academic knowledge for application to practice in an effort to overcome this problem of cognition impacting leadership perception, interpretation and judgement. An overall aim is to become more astute observers, going deeper and beyond surface or initial first impressions or what might be readily or easily accessible. This requires developing a more complex and systematic way of processing observations and information to form a more holistic and complete understanding as a basis for solving problems to advance continuous learning.

Solutions

What type of leadership development would be powerful enough to counter an Extension-of-self thought process? How can leadership development facilitate meaningful and productive learning experiences that are powerful enough to foster an inquiry state of mind to solve problems that advance student learning? These questions are important to consider relative to at least three interrelated solutions offered from social psychology. These include: 1) Developing self-knowledge and metacognitive awareness; 2) Problem solving and planning using framing and perspective taking; and, 3) Creating a context for collaborative and constructive problem solving.

Self-knowledge and metacognitive awareness

According to social psychologists, systematic decision making based upon complex and extensive thought – as opposed to surface, superficial and spontaneous processing – results in longer lasting commitments (Smith et al, 2015).?What kinds of learning experiences are needed in leadership development to foster such a habit of mind and commitment to students, learning and local communities??

Developing a depth of knowledge of oneself and building metacognitive awareness is fundamental. Promoting metacognitive awareness requires recognition and accounting for cognitive schemata and heuristics that may result in selective attention to what is familiar, rather than raising questions and looking deeper beneath the surface of what might be referred to as “common sense.” Metacognitive awareness means removing one’s own thought process and schema in order to make observations and to come to understand what is actually happening in a particular context rather than seeing through one’s own filter and comparing what is observed in comparison to a familiar heuristic. Metacognitive leadership means inquiring to understand diverse perspectives and values, needs and concerns among students, teachers, families and the community to facilitate collaborative problem solving.

Leadership that develops metacognitive awareness engages in a more systematic and complex thought process to understand underlying causes of problems and invests the forethought, time and planning necessary to facilitate and enable continuous progressive change. ?Rather than a surface and linear focus on the individual and isolated details, metacognitive leadership makes observations, documents practice, and engages in systematic analysis to understand and predict the dynamic interaction among diverse individuals and groups in the social context (Coutts et al, 2005; Schneider et al, 2005). This metacognitive awareness enables leadership to more fully comprehend the nature of problems in order to develop more effective strategies and solutions.

Social psychologists report that student engagement is directly related to the degree to which plans are more elaborated and thorough (Mischel, Cantor and Feldman, 1996). Accordingly, metacognitive leadership develops such thorough plans by maintaining an internal dialogue to appreciate multiple points of view, to take the perspective of others and to take under serious consideration alternative perspectives and options in solving problems. This type of mindset is flexible and responsive to the social context which is fundamental to planning, solving problems and accomplishing goals. Thus, a metacognitive mindset in leadership promotes a sense of social awareness and goal-directed behavior that increases the degree to which planning is detailed and thorough in order to accomplish goals and intended outcomes.

Finally, metacognitive leadership is more likely to use science and theory to guide practice. Metacognitive leadership makes observations, engages in the documentation of practice and identifies observable patterns, determines interrelationships, creates testable assertions, and is able to make predictions to define and solve problems (Towson, 2005). ?As such, a mindset that promotes metacognition, self-knowledge and a sense of social awareness supports greater opportunities for leadership to use science and theory upon which to provide guidance and facilitate thoughtful planning for problem solving.

Perspective taking and framing in problem solving and planning.

In developing plans to address problems, metacognitive leadership spends considerable time thinking about options for using language to properly frame situations in order to encourage a more positive orientation among stakeholder groups for investment and active participation.?Framing may become essential for instance in leading a group to observe a high performing school. Framing such an experience is essential to supporting a more substantive and complex way of processing the observation and to appreciate the deeper structure of a respective school on its own terms rather than seeing through one’s own perspective as a means for a simplistic conclusion of rejection or replication. Reframing a problem for example as an interesting puzzle to sort out or as a new learning experience encourages teams to find mutually acceptable solutions through joint effort (Weitzman and Weitzman; Katz and Block). Similarly, using language to reframe problems as mutually shared concerns (For instance, this is something we need to figure out) also promotes a cooperative, collaborative and participatory context among stakeholders to reach a mutually acceptable solution to all (Deutsch, 2000). Thus, thoughtful framing is important because it encourages and facilitates positive and productive interpersonal communications and group dynamics, teamwork and collaboration as well as investment and commitment among teams to a defined process and to learning.?

This type of framing clearly requires metacognitive leadership to formulate a more sophisticated and complex understanding of intergroup dynamics and communication. Thoughtful consideration is required for instance to understand the diverse viewpoints and perspectives that exist in a social context based upon knowing the values and beliefs, perspectives and concerns of individuals and among diverse groups. This understanding is established through astute observation over time. ?Planning considers getting inside the thinking of others and taking the perspective of diverse groups and members. In so doing, experiences can be planned so that each group member’s values, expertise and skills are considered, incorporated and respected and participants come to feel that everyone benefits as members of the group in achieving the mission (Katz and Block, 2000).

????Therefore, central to framing and thoughtful planning to solve problems is the ability to take on different perspectives. To engage in perspective taking is to understand and appreciate that people perceive the world from differing points of view (Krauss and Morsella, 2000). Taking the view of others is an essential part of leadership and is necessary to create a context for collaborative problem solving. It further requires the skill to synthesize different points of view as well as the skill to cultivate a culture of openness and flexibility to appreciate multiple possible solutions (Gruber, 2000).Thoughtful planning for problem solving that takes into consideration the diverse perspectives that exist within a community also means that metacognitive leadership is focused on what the intended meaning is of communications sent and received. Forethought is put into appreciating and understanding the listener’s perspective. Thus, metacognitive leadership engages in perceptive observation and being an active and responsive listener.

Promoting a context for collaborative and constructive problem solving

Metacognitive leadership engaged in thoughtful planning and problem solving cultivates a culture and context of cohesion, fairness, recognition of success and an openness to innovation. Ideally, a context is created in schools where the needs and concerns of every child and all stakeholders are valued and respected, appreciated and understood. Ultimately, creating such a context requires leadership to cultivate a collaborative culture where all perspectives are shared and valued, where problem solving means being concerned for another’s point of view, and where members see other perspectives as legitimate (Deutsch, 2000). A context and culture that engages in collaborative and constructive problem solving tends to result in the application of higher levels of complex reasoning strategies and higher quality decisions and solutions (Johnson, Johnson, Tjosvold, 2000).

An important consideration among leadership in creating such a culture and context is to begin by establishing a common goal that is valued by all members of the community (Deutsch, 2000).?Creating a common goal and purpose with equal roles for participation works to eliminate a competitive context and increases the likelihood of achieving positive outcomes.? This context of interdependence and cooperation further promotes effective communication, feelings of agreement, coordination of effort, and facilitates collaborative and constructive resolutions to problems (Deutsch, 2000).?

An example is described by Johnson et al (2000) which begins by ensuring that each member of the group receives a fair and complete hearing to define a given challenge and share strategies and solutions. After group members share, participants identify perspectives and proposals that most resonate with their perspective. To the degree small groups are formed, each group is asked to research and develop a presentation to the wider group for consideration. All teams listen without interruption and take notes. After each presentation, questions and answers are exchanged and requests for supporting evidence or clarifications are made. Following, teams take on alternative positions and argue for another group’s perspective and are permitted to make modifications or incorporate new information into a given proposal. Then, a summary list is presented reflecting a synthesis of the central arguments or positions offered inclusive of any additional points reflecting the best ideas with supporting evidence. In the end, all participants reach consensus and agree to sign a final plan reflecting commitment and agreement of each participant to do their part to successfully execute the plan to achieve intended outcomes.

Conclusion

In conclusion, a habit of mind referred to as Extension-of-self is representative of a traditional conception of leadership and pattern of reasoning in P12 schools that contributes to conflict, turbulence, discontinuity of learning as well as trauma and harm for students.?This perspective promotes bias, assumptions and judgments that contributes to a lack of understanding and ultimately errors in decision making and perpetual failure. In an effort to address this challenge, application of social psychology to practice supports developing greater metacognition, self-knowledge and social awareness among leadership. As a result, metacognitive leadership can more fully appreciate and understand diverse perspectives and values as well as needs and concerns among students, teachers, families and the community. With more thoughtful and systematic ways of processing, leaders are better able to facilitate and encourage as well as create opportunities that promote positive and productive interpersonal communication and dynamics, collaboration and teamwork.?This type of leadership devotes considerable time and focus on problem solving and planning which includes taking on divergent perspectives and thoughtful framing of issues and opportunities. A more systematic way of processing and reasoning among leadership thus results in collaborative and constructive problem solving for solutions that promotes greater organizational continuity and consistency in better serving all students.??? ?

References

Deutsch, M. (2000). Cooperation and competition. Chapter. 1. (Eds) M. Deutsch and P.T. Coleman. The Handbook on Conflict Resolution. Theory and Practice. Jossey-Bass Publishers: San Francisco.

Gruber, H.E. (2000). Creativity and conflict resolution: The role of point of view. Chapter 16. (Eds) M. Deutsch and P.T. Coleman. The Handbook on Conflict Resolution. Theory and Practice. Jossey-Bass Publishers: San Francisco.

Gruman J. and L. Coutts (2005). Applying social psychology to organizations, Chapter 10. (Eds) F. W. Schneider, J. A. Gruman and L. M. Coutts. Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. Sage Publications: London; United Kingdom.

Hollins, E. R. (2011).?The Centrality of a Theoretical Perspective on Learning to Teach.?In I. M. Saleh & M. S. Khine (Editors), Teaching Teachers: ?Approaches in improving quality of education (323-341).?New York:?Nova Science Publishers, Inc.?

Hollins, E. R. (June 6, 2008). The principal as leader and facilitator for teaching and learning. Presentation at Principal Meeting. Academic English Mastery Program. Los Angeles Unified School District. Los Angeles, CA

Johnson, D. W, Johnson, R. T. and D. Tjosvold. (2000). Constructive controversy: The value of intellectual opposition. Chapter. 3. (Eds) M. Deutsch and P.T. Coleman, The Handbook on Conflict Resolution. Theory and Practice. Jossey-Bass Publishers: San Francisco.

Katz, T.Y and C.J. Block (2000). Process and Outcome Goal Orientations in Conflict Situations. Chapter 13. (Eds) M. Deutsch and P.T. Coleman. The Handbook on Conflict Resolution. Theory and Practice. Jossey-Bass Publishers: San Francisco.

Krauss, R.M. and E. Morsella (2000). Communication and conflict. Chapter 6. (Eds) M. Deutsch and P.T. Coleman. The Handbook on Conflict Resolution. Theory and Practice. Jossey-Bass Publishers: San Francisco. ?

Medvec, V.H., Madey, S., Gilovich, T. (Oct. 1995). When Less Is More: Counterfactual Thinking and Satisfaction Among Olympic Medalists [Attitudes and Social Cognition]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. American Psychological Association, Inc. Volume 69(4). Pp. 603–610.

Mischel, W., N. Cantor and S. Feldman (1996). Principles of self-regulation: The nature of willpower and self-control. Chapter 12. In, Social Psychology: Handbook of Basic Principles. (Eds) E. Tory Higgins and Arie W. Kruglanski. The Guilford Press: New York; London.

Peck, J. and Goodman, J. D. (May 24, 2022) Shooting at Elementary School Devastates Community in South Texas. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/live/2022/05/24/us/shooting-robb-elementary-uvalde

Schneider, F., Gruman, J. and L. Coutts (2005). Defining the field of applied social psychology. Chapter 1. (Eds) F. W. Schneider, J. A. Gruman and L. M. Coutts. Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. Sage Publications: London; United Kingdom.

Stangor, Charles, R. Jhangiani, H. Tarry (2022). Principles of Social Psychology – 1st International H5P Edition Chapter 2 Social Cognition. https://opentextbc.ca/socialpsychology/

Towson, S. M. J. (2005). Social psychology theory. Chapter 2. (Eds) F. W. Schneider, J. A. Gruman and L. M. Coutts. Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. Sage Publications: London; United Kingdom.

Weitzman, E. A., P. F. Weitzman (2000). Problem solving and decision making in conflict resolution. Ch.9. (Eds) M. Deutsch and P.T. Coleman. The Handbook on Conflict Resolution. Theory and Practice. Jossey-Bass Publishers: San Francisco.?

Jared R. Lancer ? Copyright 2022