Self-Regulated Learning
Barry Zimmerman (2002). Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview. Theory Into Practice. Volume 41, Number 2, Spring 2002. College of Education: The Ohio State University.
64 few teachers currently prepare students to learn on their own
65 Even if it were possible for teachers to accommodate every student's limitation at any point during the school day, their assistance could undermine the most important aspect of this learning -- a student's development of a capacity to self-regulate
65 Learning is viewed as an activity that students do for themselves in a proactive way rather than as a covert event that happens in reaction to teaching
66 Self-regulation is important because a major function of education is the development of life-long learning skills
69 Recent research shows that self-regulatory processes are teachable and can lead to increases in students' motivation and achievement (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1998)
69-70 self-regulated students seek out help from others to improve their learning
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Paul Pintrich (1995). Understanding self-regulated learning. New Directions For Teaching and Learning. No. 63, Fall 1995. Jossey-Bass
5 three different dimensions of their learning: their observable behavior, their motivation and affect, and their cognition
7 Students can Learn to Be Self-Regulated
9 Self-Regulated Learning is Teachable
9-11 five general principles for encouraging self-regulated learning ...
- Students need to have greater awareness of their own behavior, motivation and cognition ... self-reflection ... feedback
- Students need to have positive motivational beliefs
- Faculty can be models of self-regulated learning
- Students need to practice self-regulatory learning strategies
- Classroom tasks can and should be opportunities for student self-regulation
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Sharon Zumbrunn, Joseph Tadlock, Elizabeth Roberts (2011). Encouraging self-regulated learning in the classroom: A review of the literature. Virginia Commonwealth University. October 2011.
3 Self-regulated learning (SLR) ... requires students to independently plan, monitor, and assess their learning
9 teachers must teach students the self-regulated processes that facilitate learning. These processes often include: goal setting ... planning ... self-motivation ... attention control ... flexible use of learning strategies ... self-monitoring ... appropriate help-seeking ... and self-evaluation
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Albert Bandura and Dale Schunk (1981). Cultivating competence, self-efficacy, and intrinsic interest through proximal self-motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 586-598.
590? the suggestion of proximal goals was made at the beginning of the second session as well
590? goals were mentioned suggestively rather than prescriptively ... for two reasons. First ... to increase children's self-involvement ... Second, choice increases the level of personal responsibility and commitment to goals
591-592? Those who had the benefit of proximal subgoals substantially increased their perceived self-efficacy and exhibited even further gains following the performance post test
592? the proximal group exceeded all others in strength of perceived self-efficacy
592? children who had employed proximal subgoals surpassed all the other groups
594? the proximal children were markedly more persistent
594? children in the proximal subgoal condition exceeded all three comparison groups
594? proximal self-motivators produced more rapid mastery of the subject matter
595? children who developed their skills under proximal subgoals were highly accurate in their self-appraisals of efficacy
596? Results of the present study confirm the influential role of proximal self-motivators in the cultivation of competence, self-percepts of efficacy, and intrinsic interest. Children who set themselves attainable subgoals progressed rapidly in self-directed learning, achieved substantial mastery of mathematical operations, and heightened their perceived self-efficacy and interest in activities that initially held little attraction for them
597? skills cultivated through proximal standards of competency build interest in disvalued activities
597? some temporal lag exists between newly acquired self-efficacy and corresponding growth of interest
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Scott Paris & Alison Paris (2001). Classroom applications of research on self-regulated learning. Educational Psychologist, 36(2), 89-101. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
91 cognitive instruction involves students in reflective discourses about thinking with multiple opportunities to talk about the task and how to solve it
92 students need to know what actions lead to which outcomes and why it is important to perform and monitor those actions
92 Training children to be more strategic readers and writers thus involved making children aware of potential strategies, helping them to attribute success to good strategies, and helping them to choose and monitor appropriate strategies
93 peer review and feedback
93 Harris and Graham (1992) ... six recursive stages: (a) activating and developing background knowledge, (b) discussion, (c) cognitive modeling, (d) mnemonic memorization, (e) supported performance, and (f) independent performance
93 If students believe that strategy use is the reason for success rather than attributing success to more stable factors (e.g., ability) or less controllable ones (e.g., luck, the teacher), they are more likely to utilize effective strategies in the future
93 If the nature of activities and their participation structures implicitly require the use of strategies, students will be more likely to develop thoughtful approaches to learning than if they are limited to situations where strategy use is coerced or directed
93 when teachers structure classroom tasks that emphasize peer competition, rote procedures, and behavioral management, students are likely to perceive classroom tasks as busy work, to focus on completing the task, and to engage in the activities in superficial manners
94 Project-based learning or problem-based learning (PBL) ... five key features for implementing PBL; (a) Instructional units, which are called "projects," must be orchestrated around a driving question that is worthwhile, meaningful, and feasible; (b) projects must be in the form of investigations in which students plan, design, and conduct real-world research that includes asking questions, and drawing inferences; (c) students need to create artifacts that are tangible results of the investigation process and reflect their understanding; (d) projects must include collaboration with their peers as well as teachers and local experts outside of the school environment; and (e) teachers should incorporate the use of technological tools, which allow authentic investigations and support deep understandings
94 PBL supports SRL because it places the responsibility on the students to find information, to coordinate actions and people, to reach goals, and to monitor understanding.
Students are cognitively engaged in classrooms that have open-ended tasks, projects, and problems that are based on driving questions
95 Learning depends on assessment of both product and process
95 self-assessment includes all three domains: cognitive, motivational, and affective
95 "...providing students with a learning goal and progress feedback led to the highest self-efficacy, motivated strategy use, and achievement"
95 One of the main purposes of authentic assessment is to encourage students to become involved more actively in monitoring and reviewing their own performance
95-96 self-assessment. Students were asked the following" (a) to explain what work was difficult to do and what work made them proud, (b) to identify samples of their work that exhibited their literacy abilities, (c) to show evidence of their academic progress in literacy and other subjects to determine the standards that students use for self-assessment, (d) to report their feelings about self-review and their future academic development, and (e) to explain how they shared their work with parents and how they viewed feedback from teachers
96 Students who comply with teachers and use instructed strategies are regulated by others, not self
97 Teachers need to provide direct explanations about SRL, multiple curriculum opportunities that foster SRL, and positive models of self-regulated learners so that students can aspire to learn and use effective strategies for their own education
98 To avoid another threat to self-esteem or potential confirmation of low ability, the student might pretend to become ill, give a half-hearted effort, or cheat ... Self-handicapping techniques are clearly designed to minimize threats to self-esteem
98 children's understanding of SRL, is enhanced in three ways: indirectly through experience, directly through instruction, and elicited through practice
99 students of all ages can benefit from analyses and discussions of strategies for learning
99 Less emphasis should be placed on workbook exercises and routine tasks and more emphases should be placed on working together to guide students to more effective approaches to learning
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David Nicol & Debra Macfarlane-Dick (2006). Formative assessment and self-regulated learning: A model and seven principles of good feedback practice. Studies in Higher Education. Vol. 31, No. 2, April 2006, pp. 199-218.
199 This shift in focus, whereby students are seen as having a proactive rather than a reactive role in generating and using feedback, has profound implications for the way in which teachers organise assessments and support learning
199 Formative assessment refers to assessment that is specifically intended to generate feedback on performance to improve and accelerate learning (Sadler, 1998). A central argument is that, in higher education, formative assessment and feedback should be used to empower students as self-regulated learners
204 teachers should focus much more effort on strengthening the skills of self-assessment in their students
205 feedback is involved when students actively control their study time or their interactions with others (behaviour), and when they monitor and control motivational beliefs to adapt to the demands of the course
205 Importantly, this research also shows that any student, even those "at risk", can learn to become more self-regulating
205 Good feedback practice is broadly defined here as anything that might strengthen the students' capacity to self-regulate their own performance
206 when students were asked to rank specific assessment criteria for an essay task, they produced quite different rankings from those of their teachers
206 provide students with 'exemplars' of performance
207 self-assessment can lead to significant enhancements in learning and achievement
208 provide students with opportunities to evaluate and provide feedback on each other's work
208 ensure that feedback is provided in a timely manner (close to the act of learning production)
209 comments should indicate to the student how the reader (the teacher) experienced the essay as it was read ... rather than offer judgmental comments
210 (ii) providing timely feedback -- this means before it is too late for students to change their work (i.e. before submission) rather than just, as the research literature often suggests, soon after submission
210 Peer dialogue enhances in students a sense of self-control over learning
211 frequent high-stakes assessments (where marks or grades are given) has a negative impact on motivation for learning that militates against preparation for lifelong learning
211 In one study, Butler (1988) demonstrated that feedback comments alone increased students' subsequent interest in learning when compared with two other controlled situations, one where only marks were given and the other where students were given feedback and marks. Butler argued that students paid less attention to the comments when given marks, and consequently did not try to use the comments to make improvements
212 teachers can have a positive or negative effect on motivation and self-esteem
213 The only way to tell if learning results from feedback is for students to make some kind of response to complete the feedback loop (Sadler, 1989). This is one of the most often forgotten aspects of formative assessment. Unless students are able to use the feedback to produce improved work, through for example, re-doing the same assignment, neither they nor those giving the feedback will know that it has been effective (Boud, 2000, P. 158)
213 many writers argue that resubmissions should play a more prominent role in learning (Boud, 2000)
214 Yorke (2003, p. 482) ... The act of assessing has an effect on the assessor as well as the student. Assessors learn about the extent to which they [students] have developed expertise and can tailor their teaching accordingly
215 This article has argued that conceptions of assessment have lagged behind conceptions of learning in higher education. While students have been given more responsibility for learning in recent years, there has been far greater reluctance to give them increased responsibility for assessment processes (even low-stakes formative processes)
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Christopher Wolters (2003). Regulation of motivation: Evaluating an underemphasized aspect of self-regulated learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(4), 189-205.
189 students are more effective when they take a purposeful role in their own learning
189 self-regulated learners ... are capable of monitoring their learning and generating internal feedback about their cognitive processing
190 a strategy for the regulation of motivation ... can be characterized as a procedure used by individuals in a purposeful and willful manner to influence their motivation
194 students who provided themselves with rewards completed more arithmetic problems than students who provided themselves with punishments or students who did not self-consequate
196 "self-handicapping" ... Putting off doing work until the last minute, avoiding studying, and staying up late the night before an important exam
196-197 one possible reason that students self-handicap is that it allows them to attribute poor performance to factors other than low ability, thus helping to maintain their self-esteem or sense of worth
197 A second possible and more immediate motivational advantage of this strategy ... it is meant to provide an avenue for maintaining the public perception that an individual has high ability
197 self-handicapping is typically characterized as a maladaptive activity
197 there is evidence suggesting that self-handicapping may be counterproductive as a regulation of motivation strategy
198 research indicates that students may be able to purposefully impact their attributional processing by consciously selecting learning process goals over outcome goals when engaged in academic tasks
198 Proximal goal setting ... providing students with short-term goals can raise their self-efficacy and subsequent motivation for particular tasks
198 students should be able to positively influence their motivation by purposefully setting and monitoring their own proximal goals
199 defensive pessimism may best be considered a preventative strategy that facilitates students' motivation and performance in the short run but may serve to hinder these outcomes in the long term
199 emotion control describes students' ability to regulate their emotional experience to ensure that they provide effort and complete academic tasks
200 students who use motivational regulation strategies are more likely to get better grades than students that do not regulate their motivation
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Steven Katz & Lisa Dack (2013). Towards a culture of inquiry for data use in schools: Breaking down professional learning barriers through intentional interruption. Studies in Educational Evaluation.
35-36 student achievement is most influenced by classroom practice, in turn, is most influenced by teacher learning
36 Once students' learning needs are understood, the teacher moves to an explicit articulation of the relationship between current teaching practice and the student learning requirements, and then plots a course for professional knowledge as well as translate into changes in practice
36 conditions for improving learning and teaching are created when teachers collectively consider evidence about the current state of affairs, question ineffective teaching routines, examine new conceptions of teaching and learning, find generative means to acknowledge and respond to differences, and engage actively in supporting one another's professional growth
36 reframe "what they know" as "what they think they know,"
36 Instructional leaders, in particular, have an important role to play in creating opportunities for teachers to become comfortable with "not knowing", to see new learning (for themselves) as a routine part of their work, and to participate in an ongoing process of examining their own beliefs and practices in relation to various bodies of evidence
36 "learning is the process through which experience causes permanent change in knowledge or behaviour" (Woolfolk, Winne, & Perry, 2012)
37 research finds that most people are more likely to be "lifelong avoiders of learning" than "lifelong realizers of learning" (Katz & Dack, 2013) ... Human beings, by virtue of their cognitive architecture, have a natural predisposition to preserve and conserve existing beliefs, understandings, and behaviours ... In assimilation, people change new information to fit with already existing beliefs, rather than changing the beliefs to fit the information ... "accommodation", involves changing beliefs and understandings to fit new information and is the kind of learning that embodies conceptual change ... If real learning involves permanent change, accommodation is the kind of learning that is about thinking, knowing, and understanding differently than before. Without it, practice does not change ... The human mind throws all kinds of obstacles in the way, which are barriers to successfully enabling real professional learning. We refer to these obstacles or barriers as cognitive biases
37 confirmation bias ... refers to the idea that once people have a hypothesis about something, they tend to look only for things that confirm it, rather than challenge it ... This is problematic because it is only when people encounter and attend to disconfirming evidence that they realize that they need to change and learn something new
38 Understanding the confirmation bias can remind people of the importance of purposefully recruiting and considering disconfirming evidence, essentially forcing them to consider ideas that run contrary to their existing thoughts and beliefs
38 an "activity trap" -- an activity that is well-intentioned, but not needs-based
38 The expertise literature (e.g., Glaser & Chi, 1988) underscores that experts are faster than novices at all stages of problem solving, save one -- the problem analysis stage, in which experts actually spend a significantly larger proportion of their time than novices. Experts spend a long time mapping out the requirements of a problem before committing to action
38 people often select solutions that have worked in the past but may not apply to a new situation, which is known as the "competency trap"
38-39 The vividness bias describes the notion that when something is salient -- or when it produces a vivid memory -- people tend to overemphasize the likelihood of its occurrence
39 Most people consider harm that results from the actions they have taken to be worse than the harm resulting from not taking any action at all. This is called the omission bias ... The reason that this is so important to understand -- and to intentionally interrupt -- is because it makes people risk adverse ... doing nothing is not truly doing nothing; it is doing nothing new
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Y.B. Chung & Mantak Yuen (2011). The role of feedback in enhancing students' self-regulation in inviting schools. Journal of Invitational Theory and Practice. Volume 17.
22 It can be argued that one of the most important challenges facing teachers today is that of helping students become better self-regulated learners
22 self-regulated learners are more effective, confident, resourceful, and persistent in learning
22 there are many influences, internal and external to the learner, that can enhance or obstruct the development of self-regulation
23 of the many environmental influences that enhance or impede the development of self-regulation, feedback is among the most important
24 An inviting school intentionally creates and maintains a climate that values all students, encourages and rewards initiative, provides opportunities for decision making and problem solving, and strives to make all students feel welcome and successful
26 Guidance provided by teachers should put more effort into strengthening the skills of self-assessment and reflection among their students (Yorke, 2003), because self-assessment can lead to significant enhancement in learning and achievement (Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006)
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Dale Schunk (1990). Goal setting and self-efficacy during self-regulated learning. Educational Psychologist, 25 (1), 71-86.
71 Self-efficacy and goal setting are affected by self-observation, self-judgment, and self-reaction
72 Self-observation, or deliberate attention to aspects of one's behaviors, informs and motivates
73 Self-observation is aided with self-recording, where behavior instances are recorded along with such features as time, place, and duration of occurrence
73 Self-judgment involves comparing present performance with one's goal
73 self-reactions to goal progress motivate behavior
74 The effects of goals on behavior depend on their properties: specificity, proximity, and difficulty level
74 When facing difficulties, self-efficacious learners expend greater effort and persist longer than students who doubt their capabilities
75 Rotter's (1966) locus of control emphasizes perceived control over outcomes ... People are likely to act when they believe an action will produce positive outcomes and when they value those outcomes
76-77 adult subjects ... proximal goal subjects judged expectation of goal attainment and perceived competence as being higher. Distant goals led to higher ratings of interest
77 College students ... assigned difficult goals set higher goals and generated more uses than those initially allowed to set their own goals
79 When students believe added effort will produce success, they persist longer and achieve at a higher level
81 Goals set too high or too low do not enhance self-regulated learning or achievement beliefs ... Realistic goal setting often requires training
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Edwin Locke & Gary Latham (2006). New directions in goal-setting theory. Current Directions in Psychological Science. Vol. 15, No. 5 (Oct., 2006). Pp 265-268.
265 Feelings of success in the workplace occur to the extent that people see that they are able to grow and meet job challenges by pursuing and attaining goals that are important and meaningful
266 People with a learning goal orientation tend to choose tasks in which they can acquire knowledge and skill. Those with a performance goal orientation tend to avoid tasks where others may judge them unfavorably due to possible errors they might make