Roman Conquest of Britain
Caesar’s first expedition to Britain
After conquering Gaul and reaching the shores of the English Channel it wasn't difficult for Caesar to conclude that if he wanted peace on his new northern borders, he had to prevent the influx of enemies from outside. Therefore, in 56 BC, he sent his officer Volusenus with a single galley to reconnoiter the British coast and gather as much information as possible about the island. It appears that Volusenus did not disembark in Britain, and it is unknown what information he brought back to his general. It seems that the Britons were impressed by the strength of the Romans, as some representatives of the Regni and Canti tribes arrived at Caesar's camp and requested peace and protection from him. To finalize the negotiations, Caesar sent British exiled prince Commius to Britain, whom he had previously appointed as the king of the Gallic Atrebates. However, the British impression of the Romans quickly faded. Upon his arrival among the Britons, Commius was captured and put in chains.
This incident served as a good reason for Caesar to personally embark for Britain. It appears that Caesar did not plan an invasion of Britain but rather some form of punitive expedition or reconnaissance mission. He only took two legions with him, totaling 8,000 to 10,000 legionaries. Additionally, Caesar led a smaller contingent of cavalry, which, due to unfortunate circumstances, never participated in the initial campaign. Having embarked his soldiers on 80 transport ships and an unspecified number of swift galleys, Caesar set sail towards Britain at the end of August in 55 BC, somewhere in the narrowest part of the English Channel. The cavalry, embarked on 18 transport ships, was supposed to follow him.?
According to Caesar's account, the expeditionary fleet reached the Dover Cliffs, where they were met by a large number of armed Britons ready to resist the Roman landing. Unable to disembark on the shore, Caesar sailed along the coast until he found a somewhat suitable place to land his legionaries. The Britons followed them, intending to prevent them from doing so. At times, it seemed that the Britons would succeed. The Romans struggled to advance through the shallows in their heavy armor, but once the legionaries reached the land, their discipline prevailed. After a fierce battle, the Britons withdrew. Caesar could not pursue them as his cavalry had not yet arrived. The next day, the Britons sent an envoy to negotiate a truce and offer hostages as a sign of good faith. They also released Caesar's envoy, Commius, who had brought with him thirty Celtic horsemen. Caesar accepted the offer, as he needed to consolidate his position on the island. However, shortly thereafter, a storm destroyed and damaged a significant portion of the Roman ships at anchor. To make matters worse, the same storm sank many of the ships carrying the cavalry, which had finally arrived, and forced others to return to Gaul. Caesar found himself with his troops confined to the shore, a fleet in ruins, and severed supply lines. He ordered as many ships as possible to be repaired, while sending the legionaries to harvest the nearby fields to gather provisions for his soldiers.
The Britons sensed the weakness of the Romans. They first attacked the scattered legionaries in the grain fields but were repelled by Caesar's timely intervention. In the following days, the Romans sought to repair their vessels and protect their base, while the Britons gathered for a decisive battle. Caesar knew that his greatest weakness lay in the lack of cavalry. In previous battles, he had carefully studied the British way of fighting and their use of war chariots. In his writings, Caesar described the Britons as skilled warriors who used their war chariots in a somewhat peculiar manner. They employed them as a means for swift attacks and the maneuvering of their forces. They were capable of quickly traversing various terrains on those chariots, but when it came to battle, the Britons would dismount and fight on foot. While the fight raged on, the charioteers would position themselves behind their warriors so that they could quickly retreat if needed. Caesar's strength lay in the organization of his battle formations, which the Britons found difficult to penetrate. The battle soon ensued, and all British attacks broke upon the wall of Roman shields. After some time, the Britons fled. This time, the Romans pursued them with the help of Commius' horsemen and light infantry. Many Britons were slain during the retreat, and a vast area was ravaged and set on fire. On the same day, British envoys came to Caesar to offer peace and hostages. Caesar had no intention of waiting for hostages. During the night, the Romans sailed back to Gaul on their repaired vessels.
Caesar’s second expedition to Britain
Upon Caesar's return from Britain, the Roman Senate organized a triumph and a twenty-days celebration in honor of the victory over the Britons. Caesar knew very well that his campaign had not been a success. The hostages were never delivered, and the Britons remained unconquered as before. Therefore, Caesar decided to repeat his expedition to Britain the following year, but this time with a much larger army. In late July 54 BC, a fleet of about 800 ships set sail with five legions (around 21,000 legionaries) and about 2,000 cavalry. After some difficulties at sea, the fleet arrived on the British coast at approximately the same location as the previous year. However, this time the Britons did not dare to oppose such a large fleet. Soon, a storm once again caused damage to the Roman ships, so Caesar decided to beach the vessels and fortify them with defensive ramparts. Meanwhile, the Britons gathered their forces to resist the Romans. Despite the disunity among the tribes, the Britons chose Cassivellaunus, the ruler of the Catuvellauni tribe, which inhabited the area north of the Thames, as their military leader. Cassivellaunus, due to his aggressive policies towards neighboring tribes, was not a beloved ruler. The Trinovantes tribe, in particular, suffered from his aggression. Cassivellaunus killed the king of that tribe and expelled his son, Mandubracius. Mandubracius was forced to flee to Gaul, where he sought Caesar's protection and actively participated in Caesar's campaign in Britain. Despite all of that, the Britons chose Cassivellaunus as their leader based on his proven military abilities. With this information at hand, Caesar realized that if he wanted to successfully conclude his campaign in Britain as soon as possible and return to Rome, he would need to defeat the strongest tribe, the Catuvellauni, first. Therefore, he set out with his army from the coastal camp towards the Thames. He left the camp partially defended with a portion of his troops. On the way from the coast to the River Thames, the Britons attempted to inflict as much damage as possible on the Romans through fast and surprise attacks. However, the Romans reached the Thames relatively unscathed. The Britons had fortified the northern shores of the river, but the Romans caught them completely off guard with a powerful attack immediately upon arriving at the southern shores of the Thames. The defense was broken, and the Britons who had defended the northern shore scattered in fear. The unexpectedly easy crossing of the Thames by the Romans dealt a significant blow to the morale of the Britons. Certain tribes that had previously sided with Cassivellaunus, especially the Trinovantes, switched to the Roman side. Caesar appointed Mandubracius as the king of the Trinovantes, and they provided him with food and important information. Through this, Caesar learned that an important "city" of the Catuvellauni was located not far from where he had crossed the Thames. The Romans immediately headed towards the fortress. We do not know the exact location, but we know that Caesar scoffed at the Celtic name for that place as a "city." In his description, Caesar mentions that the Britons have the habit of calling any stronghold a city. He describes the stronghold precisely as a hill fort situated in a naturally defensible location, which the Britons further fortified with ditches, embankments, and palisades, and where they would take refuge only in times of danger. The fortress quickly fell into Roman hands, with tremendous bloodshed. In an effort to deter Caesar from attacking his stronghold, Cassivellaunus ordered four British kings from Kent to attack the Roman base on the coast. Unfortunately for him, the Romans repelled this attack as well, and Cassivellaunus had no choice but to seek peace. Caesar, who no longer wanted to waste time in Britain, agreed to Cassivellaunus surrendering hostages as a pledge of peace, imposed an annual tribute that the Britons, as Roman subjects, had to pay to Rome, and forbade Cassivellaunus from interfering in the internal affairs of other tribes, especially the Trinovantes. After reaching this agreement, Caesar returned to Rome satisfied with what he had achieved.
Britain after Caesar
The balance of power in Britain remained the same after the Roman withdrawal. The Catuvellauni continued to be the strongest tribe, and despite the hostages being handed over, they had no intention of paying tribute to Rome. Nevertheless, Caesar was satisfied with what he had achieved. His main goal was to secure his conquests in Gaul. He envisioned the vast Gaul as the foundation of his power in his quest to establish control in Rome. However, two years after his return from Britain, Caesar was surprised by a major uprising in Gaul led by Vercingetorix. This rebellion was suppressed after fierce battles, and the fall of Alesia marked the end of Gallic resistance. The successful process of Romanization of Gaul began.
Trade and social connections between Gaul and Britain continued in almost unchanged measure after Caesar's campaigns. However, British merchants, as well as those who traveled to the continent for other reasons, encountered a completely different picture of Gaul. It is certain that immediately after Vercingetorix's defeat, Gaul was not completely Romanized, but the influence of Rome was becoming stronger every day. The Roman way of life had somewhat altered the lives of the Celts in Gaul, and these influences certainly began to penetrate into Britain as well. On the other side of the Channel, the Britons were no longer bordering the territories of their Celtic kin but the mighty Roman Empire.
Despite the fact that the Britons did not adhere to the agreed conditions of peace after Caesar's campaigns, the Romans still considered Britain their possession, a territory that owed them obedience due to their military victories. It seems that during the first half of his reign, Augustus contemplated a new campaign in Britain. Even while sharing power with Mark Antony, Augustus stayed in northern Gaul with a significant number of legions, but his intentions were thwarted by the rebellion in Dalmatia in 34 BC. Augustus had to suppress the rebellion, which posed a threat dangerously close to Italy. After that, Augustus was forced to confront Mark Antony for power in Rome. After defeating Antony and securing his rule in Rome, Augustus returned to Gaul in 27 BC. Once again, Augustus did not venture on a campaign to Britain. It appears that by then, Augustus had embraced the idea of establishing the empire's borders along natural boundaries, and Britain was not deemed worthy of violating that principle.
Meanwhile, things in Britain continue to unfold as they did before Caesar's campaigns. Tribute from Britain ceased either during Vercingetorix's uprising in 52 BC or after Caesar's return from Gaul to Rome in 49 BC. Unfortunately, Roman sources do not closely document the state of affairs in Britain during that time. Therefore, our knowledge of the power dynamics in the part of Britain that had the strongest connections with the continent is based solely on findings of British kings' coins. It appears that the balance of power among the major British tribes in the southeast did not change significantly. Similarly, the trend of stronger tribes absorbing smaller ones continued, resulting in the consolidation of the main British kingdoms. One of the important kings of that era was Commius, the king of the Atrebates who inhabited the area of present-day Berkshire. It seems that he was the same Commius whom Caesar appointed as the king of the Gallic Atrebates and who served as Caesar's envoy in Britain. However, Commius somehow fell out of favor with the Romans. After escaping an assassination attempt by Caesar's officer Libenius, Commius actively joined Vercingetorix's rebellion. After Vercingetorix's surrender, Commius fled with his armed band across the Rhine and continued to launch guerrilla attacks against the Romans from there. In 51 BC, Commius realized that the fight was hopeless and agreed to Roman terms for surrender. The conditions were such that, in exchange for his life and freedom, Commius had to promise never to approach any Roman again. Therefore, Commius went to Britain and likely gained the support of the British Atrebates, possibly due to his military fame, to become their ruler. In this region, a significant number of coins mentioning the names of three Atrebate kings will be found - Tincommius, Verica, and Eppillus. All of them claimed to be sons of Commius, and it is likely that they were brothers who jointly inherited the throne after their father's death. Their territory extended south of the Thames, from Hampshire to the Thames. Their reign appears to have covered the last 30 years before Christ. Therefore, both Tincommius and Verica sought to establish a closer relationship with Augustus and gain his support for their rule. This only reaffirmed Augustus' belief that Rome was the sovereign power over Britain.
Cunobelinus, the King of the Britons
North of the Thames, the Catuvellauni remained the most powerful tribe. After the death of Cassivellaunus, leadership of the tribe was assumed by Tasciovanus, most likely his son. He ruled approximately from 35 BC to 5 AD. The center of the Catuvellaunian kingdom was located in Verulamium (present-day St. Albans). Despite the peace terms imposed on Cassivellaunus by Caesar, it appears that not much time passed between Caesar's withdrawal and the Catuvellauni regaining control over the Trinovantes. After Tasciovanus' death, his two sons, one of whom was Cunobelinus, ascended to the throne. According to Strabo and Dio Cassius, Dubnovellaunus, apparently a descendant of the royal lineage of the Catuvellauni, took advantage of Tasciovanus' death and briefly ruled over the territory of the Trinovantes. However, Dubnovellaunus' rule over the Trinovantes was short-lived. Cunobelinus defeated Dubnovellaunus, conquered the entire territory of the Trinovantes, and established his seat of power in Camulodunum (present-day Colchester), on their territory. According to Roman sources, Cunobelinus spared Dubnovellaunus and exiled him to the area of present-day Kent. After gaining control over certain areas south of the Thames, Dubnovellaunus was in constant conflict with Commius, the king of the Atrebates. This is likely related to the fact that Dubnovellaunus was considered a sympathizer of the Romans, while Commius remained a fierce opponent of everything Roman.
As mentioned, after the fiercely anti-Roman Commius, power over the Atrebates was acquired by his son Tincommius, whom the Romans themselves, along with Dubnovellanus, considered their greatest ally in Britain. However, it seems that the Atrebates did not reconcile themselves with this new pro-Roman policy of their new king, and he was soon overthrown, being replaced by his younger brother Eppillus. All these conflicts apparently significantly weakened the strength of the Atrebates, which Cunobelinus saw as an extraordinary opportunity to expand his power. Crossing into Atrebates' territory south of the Thames, Cunobelinus defeated Eppillus and brought the Atrebate kingdom under his control. He directly annexed a part of the kingdom to his rule, while the rest of the kingdom was handed over to Eppillus' brother, Verica. Cunobelinus made this move at a time when Augustus was in the twilight of his life, when the old emperor vehemently opposed any expansion of the empire's borders and advocated for a policy of maintaining the borders at natural barriers—the Rhine, Danube, and the sea. Therefore, the Catuvellaunian king took advantage of the moment to get rid of Dubnovellanus, another pro-Roman ruler in southeastern Britain, and thus become the ruler of a large area south of the Thames. His reign lasted for over thirty years, from 5 AD to around 40 AD, and the fact that he ruled over areas closest to the Roman Empire led the Romans to start calling him the King of the Britons, even though his rule extended only to this southeastern corner of Britain. Cunobelinus seemed to have had good relations with Augustus, and later Tiberius, so they did not fulfill the demands of Dubnovellanus and Tincommius when, after their defeat by the Catuvellauni, they sought refuge on the continent, seeking Rome's support to regain power in their kingdoms.
Britain becomes a threat
Despite all his power, Cunobelinus could not control the ambitions of his eldest son, Adminus, in his old age. Adminus openly rebelled against his father but was forced into exile after a military defeat. Going to the continent, Adminus sought refuge in the camp of the Roman Emperor Caligula (who succeeded Tiberius in the year 37 AD) and asked for his support in overthrowing his father, promising Britain's submission to Rome. Caligula made demands to Cunobelinus, but he ignored them. The eccentric emperor then led his troops to the Channel but did not cross into Britain, yet he still declared his triumph over the Britons. In the year 41 AD, Caligula was assassinated, and he was succeeded on the Roman throne by Claudius. Around the same time, King Cunobelinus died, and he was succeeded by his sons Caratacus and Togodumnus. With Cunobelinus' death, pro-Roman forces in Britain completely lost their influence. Togodumnus and Caratacus continued their father's aggressive policy towards neighboring tribes. They first defeated Dubnonii in the west and expanded their territory, then attacked the remnants of the Atrebates' kingdom, ruled by Verica. Verica, the Atrebate ruler, had to flee his kingdom and seek help in Rome, just like Adminus had done a few years earlier.
Such a growth of anti-Roman forces in southeastern Britain could not leave the Romans indifferent, especially since Togodumnus and Caratacus were clearly under the strong influence of the druidic party. Although the Romans were religiously tolerant in the conquered territories, such tolerance did not extend to Celtic druids. Druids, the Celtic priestly caste, were mainly recruited from the ranks of the Celtic tribal elite. The arrival of the Romans threatened their political position, especially after the Roman conquest of Gaul. Therefore, the druids did everything in their power to unite the divided Celtic tribal leaders in resistance against the Romans. Their political power, based on special social rules that even Celtic rulers could not resist, was the main driving force behind all anti-Roman activities. The Romans soon realized that the process of Romanization in the conquered territories was not possible as long as the power of the druids remained unbroken. Therefore, they had no tolerance for members of this religion. The rise of anti-Roman sentiment, which led to the overthrow and escape to Rome of pro-Roman rulers Tincommius and Dubnovellanus, was certainly a result of the influence of the druids. However, strong rulers like Cunobelinus, in the prime of their power, could somehow resist the extreme demands of the druids. The arrival of his sons Togodumnus and Caratacus to power brought about a complete change since both of them were under the strong influence of the druids.
All of this forced the Romans to consider the new situation right on their doorstep. The Catuvellauni were no longer a minor Celtic overseas tribe, located far from the shores of the Channel. Led by aggressive rulers, they had become a force to be reckoned with. Especially if it was known that the brothers on the throne, with the help of the druids, could unite the Britons in an aggressive campaign against the Roman shores. The expansion of their kingdom, the growth of power and resources, indicated that the Catuvellauni could become a serious threat to Channel navigation and the Gallic coast itself. The new emperor, who was not considered a powerful ruler in the eyes of the Romans, wanted to show the world that under his leadership, Rome could crush any threat. The desire for the much-needed triumph over the enemy could be achieved in Britain, and that's why Claudius decided to take advantage of it. Furthermore, in that year of 43, the Empire was in a period without major conflicts, so the emperor could easily gather forces for an attack on Britain.
领英推荐
Claudian conquest of Britain
Ever since Caesar's victories over the British tribes, the Romans considered Britain a land that owed obedience to Rome. The British disregard for agreements regarding the payment of tribute established with Caesar did not change the Roman perspective on Britain. Relying on pro-Roman rulers such as Dubnovellanus, Tincommius, and Cunobelinus brought the Romans security along the northern coasts, as well as lucrative trade development with Britain that more than compensated for the unpaid tribute. Trade with Britain brought profits to Roman merchants in Gaul, particularly those dealing in wine, pottery, and other luxurious Roman products eagerly sought after by the British elite. However, what made Britain even more interesting were reports of vast deposits of lead and silver on the island, as noted by Pliny the Elder. The growing influence of the anti-Roman faction in Britain after Cunobelinus' death, which removed the last support Rome had in Britain from the political scene, provided sufficient reason for the Empire to take action.
In 43 AD, informed by Caesar's experience, Claudius gathered a large military force for the invasion of Britain. He appointed Aulus Plautius, a member of the imperial family and a relative of Claudius' first wife, Plautia Urgulanilla, as the commander of the invasion forces. Claudius assembled four elite legions on the southern shores of the Channel: the Second Augusta, Ninth Hispana, Fourteenth Gemina, and Twentieth Valeria Victrix legion, totaling 20,000 legionnaires. In addition to the legionnaires, the expeditionary force consisted of an equal number of auxiliary forces, including around 4,000 cavalrymen. The invasion forces were estimated to be over 40,000 soldiers, not including the personnel of the Roman fleet. Later, during his arrival in Britain, Claudius also incorporated a part of his Praetorian Guard into these forces, and some prominent senators of that time accompanied the emperor on his journey. Interestingly, among the officers of these invasion forces were the future emperors Galba and Vespasian. Within the Roman ranks was Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus, a Briton and Roman citizen who was likely a descendant of Verica. Cogidubnus would play an important role in the Roman suppression of British resistance during the invasion.
Despite all the preparations, Roman legionnaires did not share the enthusiasm of their emperor and general. Superstitions about Britain as a land inhabited by dark forces, influenced by Druidism and Celtic propaganda, which were certainly spread by the Britons in contact with the Romans in Gaul, had gripped the Roman soldiers who were about to embark for Britain. The infamous "crossing" of the legions into Britain under Caligula a few years earlier still echoed among the legionnaires, to which they attributed supernatural reasons. According to Cassius Dio, Plautius had to delay the crossing for several months until special imperial messengers arrived from Rome and somehow convinced the legionnaires to obey. According to the same source, the Romans embarked somewhere near the present-day city of Boulogne on the French side of the Channel and then sailed to Britain in three naval groups. The landing took place near the present-day city of Richborough in Kent. Once again, the Britons offered no resistance during the landing. Plautius left one legion and some auxiliary forces to protect the camp at the landing site, after which he marched westward with the remaining forces to confront the British army. Togodumnus and Caratacus needed some time to gather their allies. Before they could assemble a fully armed army at the River Medway, the first natural obstacle to Roman advancement, Togodumnus and Caratacus attempted to slow down Roman progress with sudden attacks on the Roman column to buy time. However, these attacks only led to the defeat of the Britons, further eroding the morale of the Catuvellaunian allies. Cassius Dio points out that a part of the British forces from the Dobunni tribe approached Plautius before the battle at the Medway and made peace with him. There is a high probability that Cogidubnus himself played a role as a mediator between the Roman commander and this contingent of British forces. Upon reaching the River Medway, somewhere near the present-day city of Rochester, the Romans encountered a significant natural barrier. On the other side of the river, the Britons, led by Togodumnus and Caratacus, had gathered in full force. In order to break their resistance, the Romans employed a tactical trick. While the main body of the forces prepared to cross the river, auxiliary Batavian troops, skilled in crossing water obstacles in full battle readiness, secretly swam across the river at a remote location. Having reached the western shore, the Batavians attacked the British war chariots, which were traditionally positioned behind the British battle formations. Witnessing the slaughter of their valuable horses and the destruction of the chariots, the Britons hurried towards their wagons, only to face a general attack from the Romans on the eastern side of the river. In the bloody battle, the Britons were completely defeated. Togodumnus was severely wounded on the battlefield and would soon succumb to his injuries. Caratacus managed to retreat north of the Thames with his wounded brother and the remaining army. Experienced Plautius realized that the Britons were broken and that the path to Camulodunum was open to him. Southeastern Britain could no longer offer significant resistance. Upon reaching the southern shores of the Thames, Plautius halted his forces to await the arrival of the Emperor, who had assumed command of the army in the final phase of the campaign.
While waiting for Claudius's arrival, Plautius took the opportunity to subjugate the territory south of the Thames, extending further to the west. It was precisely here that Cogidubnus played a significant role by convincing the tribes of the futility of resisting Rome. He succeeded in turning the Atrebates and the Regni to the Roman side, leading the Romans to appoint him as the ruler of these two tribes. Cogidubnus likely also played a role in establishing contact between the Romans and Cartimandua, the ruler of the Brigantes, the most powerful tribe north of the Midlands. Plautius could count on their neutrality in crushing the resistance of the Catuvellauni. By the time the Emperor arrived at the Roman camp on the southern shores of the Thames, the Romans had gained control over the area south of the Thames, extending far southwest. In their advance, under the leadership of General Vespasian, the Romans conquered a number of British oppida and defeated the warlike Durotriges, Belgae, and Dumnonii. This brought the Romans to the area of present-day Wessex, including the Isle of Wight (Vectis), although it seems that the Dumnonii in the regions of present-day Devon and Cornwall remained beyond the reach of Roman authority on that occasion. Additionally, they had effectively isolated Caratacus politically, who, after the death of his brother Togodumnus, became the sole ruler of the Catuvellauni. Both the Dumnonii in the southwest and the Brigantes in the north, as well as the Iceni in the east, decided to establish friendly relations with the Romans.
After welcoming the arrival of the Emperor from Rome on the southern banks of the Thames, Plautius mobilized his army. Crossing the river somewhere in the area of present-day London, the Romans, accompanied by the Emperor, entered Camulodunum, the capital of Caratacus, without much resistance from the Britons. Prior to this, Caratacus had fled westward with his family to the area of present-day Wales. The southeastern region of Britain was conquered, and the Emperor triumphantly returned to Rome. The Romans could feel secure in the conquered territories. The Britons were completely divided, and there was no possibility of unified resistance. The Romans appointed Cogidubnus as the ruler of the Atrebates and Regni. His kingdom encompassed the area of present-day Kent and Sussex. Additionally, Prasutagus was recognized as the ruler of the Iceni in the region of present-day Norfolk. Both of these kingdoms were officially clients of Rome. The Brigantes in the north did not engage in conflicts with the Romans.
Romans’ advance towards the West
The remaining tribes of southeastern and southern Britain were conquered by the end of the year 44 AD. Small expeditionary forces were formed for this task, consisting of only one legion or even a portion of a legion, with a few auxiliary units as supplements. Tacitus best describes the campaigns of the Second Legion under the command of Legate Vespasian, but the campaigns of other legions were also notable. Vespasian's forces moved from a camp near present-day Chichester, an area nominally belonging to Cogidubnus. This legion conquered present-day Wessex, the Isle of Wight along the southern coast of Britain, and many fortifications on hills throughout Dorset. The Ninth Legion advanced northward into present-day Lincolnshire, while the Fourteenth Legion likely passed through the Midlands towards Leicester. Camulodunum was the main base of these legions, but besides this city, the Roman legions had many other bases, many of which are still unknown to this day. By 47 AD, when Publius Ostorius Scapula replaced Plautius as the commander of Roman forces, a border had been established along the Exeter-Humber line, secured by a series of military fortresses. Along the border, there ran a Roman road known as Fosse Way, which allowed easier control of the border by Roman soldiers. This road began near the mouth of the River Axe in southwestern England, passing through places like Lindianae (Ilchester) and Aquae Sulis (Bath), and extending straight to a location 100 km away called Venonae (High Cross), continuing to Ratae (Leicester), crossing the River Trent near Newark, and ending at a place called Ermine Street, south of Lindum (Lincoln).
The defeated Catuvellaunian leader Caratacus did not reconcile himself to such a situation. Finding refuge among the Silures, a powerful tribe inhabiting the central and southeastern parts of present-day Wales, Caratacus in 48 AD incited their attacks on Roman territories east of the Fosse Way. As a result, Scapula was forced to embark on the conquest of the mountainous regions in the west, all the way to the River Severn. Advancing his forces, the Roman commander clashed with a series of British tribes inhabiting the Severn Valley and present-day Wales, among which the strongest were the Silures and their northern neighbors, the Ordovices. Prior to the actual attack, Scapula secured his right flank through an official agreement with the Brigantes. The Kingdom of the Brigantes was the largest British kingdom in terms of territory, stretching from present-day Derbyshire in the south to the Tyne in the north, and from the estuary of the Humber in the east to the River Mersey in the west. The main cities of the Brigantes were Isurium (Aldborough) and later Eboracum (York), as well as the military fortresses of Cataractonium (Catterick), Olicana (Ilkley), and Vinovium (Binchester). As mentioned before, the queen Cartimandua ruled over the tribe. However, this tribe was torn apart by internal conflicts. Since the early days of Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD, Cartimandua had aligned herself with a policy of non-resistance to the Romans. Consequently, her kingdom was plagued by uprisings from anti-Roman forces seeking to overthrow their queen. It was precisely for this reason that the Romans, prior to their attack on Caratacus' forces, sought to eliminate the threat posed by these forces among the Brigantes. In 48 AD, the Romans intervened for the first time in the internal conflict of the Brigantes, assisting Queen Cartimandua in suppressing the rebellion. Thus secured from the north, Scapula launched an offensive towards the west. He first established legionary fortresses at Glevum (Gloucester) and Isca (Caerleon), from where Roman soldiers set out to conquer the territories of present-day Wales. For this occasion, the Roman forces were reinforced by the Twentieth Legion. The battles with the Silures lasted for three years. Led by Caratacus, the Silures suffered a defeat in 51 AD, prompting Caratacus to retreat to the territory of the Ordovices in the north of present-day Wales. Nevertheless, guerrilla warfare on Silurian territory continued for more than twenty years. In these battles, the Silures inflicted a serious defeat on the Second Legion. It was not until 78, after a series of military campaigns led by Sextus Julius Frontinus, that the Silures agreed to peace and the fighting in those areas ceased. In the meantime, the Romans also defeated the Ordovices. On that occasion, the Romans captured Caratacus' family. However, Caratacus himself still did not surrender. When he lost his refuge in the west, he withdrew to the north among the anti-Roman forces in the land of Queen Cartimandua. For a while, Caratacus led the rebellious Brigantes until he was captured by the queen's forces and handed over to the Romans. The Romans paraded Caratacus and his family triumphantly through the streets of Rome in the triumph of Emperor Claudius. However, Caratacus did not die as a slave. Out of respect for his bravery, the emperor granted him and his family their lives and freedom, so this British warrior spent the rest of his life in Rome.
With the defeat of the Ordovices, the Romans came closer to complete conquest of present-day Wales. The only remaining territory in British hands was the island of Anglesey, which was considered a center of Druidism. In defense of the island, the Druids attempted to use all their powers to frighten the Roman soldiers with their magical rituals, as Druids were still seen as representatives of supernatural forces. However, it seems that all the defeats suffered by the Britons, the massacres of the Druids, and the cutting down of sacred Druid groves in recent years convinced many Romans that this was not the case. Roman soldiers, under the command of Suetonius Paulinus, the Roman governor of Britain from 59 AD to 61 AD, landed on the island and carried out a massacre of the Druids from which Druidism never recovered.
Boudicca’s rebellion
While Paulinus was conquering Anglesey (Mona), an event occurred that greatly set back Roman successes in Britain. It was the rebellion of the Iceni queen Boudicca. The British tribe Iceni inhabited the area of present-day Norfolk and Suffolk in eastern England, and during the reign of King Prasutagus, the Iceni held a client position in relation to Rome. When Prasutagus died in 60 AD, leaving no male heirs behind, he left his kingdom to his two daughters and the Roman Emperor Nero through his will, believing that this would bring imperial protection to his family. However, immediately after his death, the Romans annexed the Iceni kingdom. In response to the protests of the Iceni, Roman soldiers responded with violence. Prasutagus' family was humiliated, Queen Boudicca was flogged, and her daughters were raped by the soldiers. All the property of tribal dignitaries was looted. Proud Prasutagus' wife Boudicca did not want to endure these humiliations, so shortly after her husband's death, she raised her people in rebellion against the Romans. The Trinovantes, who had long suffered Roman injustices, also joined the rebellion. While the Roman army was in Wales, the rebels set fire to Camulodunum, Verulamium, the trading settlement of Londinium, and several military outposts. According to Tacitus, they massacred around 70,000 Romans and Roman sympathizers among the Britons during their campaign, including the entire Ninth Roman Legion. Upon hearing news of the rebellion in the east, Seutonius Paulinus rushed with his army to suppress the uprising. The two armies clashed at a location near the present-day site of Fenny Stratford on Watling Street. In a desperate battle, the rebels were defeated. Boudicca did not survive this defeat. The cause of her death is unknown, but it is presumed that she poisoned herself to avoid falling into the hands of the Romans, although some sources claim that Boudicca died from shock due to the heavy defeat. After the defeat, Paulinus severely punished the Iceni, and following the Roman massacres, the once mighty people were reduced to a small community based in Venta lcenorum (Caister St. Edmund in Norfolk). The massacre of the Iceni was halted when Paulinus was removed from his position as governor of Britain and replaced by Julius Classicianus, a procurator of the province from Gaul, who had a sense of the need to maintain the cooperation of the remaining Britons with Rome.
Romans’ advance towards the North
After the pacification in the south, new problems arose in the north. Anti-Roman forces among the Brigantes could not forgive their queen for betraying Caratacus. A rebellion among the Brigantes erupted, and at its forefront was Queen Cartimandua's husband, Venutius, the king of the Iugantes tribe. However, with the support of the Romans, Cartimandua suppressed the uprising and reconciled with her husband. The two of them ruled harmoniously until 69 when Queen Cartimandua rejected her husband due to his younger bodyguard, Vellocatus. Venutius once again rebelled against his wife, and a larger part of the Brigantes, who were already mostly anti-Roman, sided with the king. It appears that the queen was saved by the intervention of the Romans, but there is no information available about her further fate. Cartimandua spent the end of her life under Roman protection, while her husband, Venutius, gained control over the Brigantes. However, he did not remain in that position for long. In 71 AD, under Venutius' leadership, the Brigantes were defeated by the Romans, and their territory was annexed to the Roman province of Britannia.
The final pacification of the part of Britain that comprises present-day England and Wales was completed during the governorship of Sextus Julius Frontinus (governor of Britain from 74 AD to 78 AD). The new Roman governor, Gnaeus Julius Agricola, who had fought against the Britons during the governorship of Suetonius Paulinus and governed the province from 78 to 84, would lead the Roman legions further north. The territory of the subjugated Brigantes extended northward to approximately the border between Scotland and England today. North of the Brigantes, in the area between the Forth-Clyde line and the northern boundary of the Brigantes, several Celtic tribes lived, whom the Romans would later know as the Cumbri, Dumnonii, Votadini, Novantae, and Selgovae. The area north of the Forth-Clyde line was called Caledonia by the Romans, and the tribes living there were initially referred to collectively as the Caledonii. Later, thanks to their practice of body painting in blue war colors and tattoos, these tribes would be known to the Romans as the Picts, meaning "painted people" (pictus). After the Romans relatively quickly brought the Lowlands of present-day Scotland, the plain region between the boundaries of the Brigantes and the Forth-Clyde line, under their control, Agricola built a series of military fortifications between the mouths of the Clyde and Forth rivers. Around the same time, in 80, Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus, the ruler of the Atrebates and Regni, died, and his kingdom, as well as the Iceni kingdom 20 years earlier, formally became part of the Roman province of Britannia. However, that was not enough for the Romans. In 83, the legions crossed the fortified northern border at the River Forth and proceeded along the eastern coast of present-day Scotland, heading north. This campaign is also described in Tacitus's biography of Agricola. It is mentioned that the advance of the Roman legions was accompanied by a large fleet sailing along the coast, following the progress of the land forces. In addition, Agricola incorporated auxiliary units composed of Britons from the southern regions into his ranks. The Caledonians launched several surprise attacks on the column of Roman legionnaires, with the most dangerous being a nocturnal assault on the camp of the IX Legion. However, they could not prevent the Romans' progress towards the heart of the mountainous region. Galgacus, the Caledonian leader, gathered his army at a place called Mons Graupius somewhere in the area of present-day Banffshire. In a fierce, day-long battle, the Romans completely defeated the Caledonians, who then scattered throughout the mountains, destroying everything in their path. Under such conditions, in a mountainous environment that did not offer any survival conditions to intruders, the Romans still retreated to fortified positions from which they sought to control the unconquered mountainous area. However, this fortified line on the edges of the hilly regions of Scotland, around present-day Dunkeld in Perthshire, was soon abandoned due to a lack of sufficient troops, and the construction of the main military fortress in the area of Inchtuthil in Strathmore was halted.
This marked the failure of the Romans' attempt to conquer the entire island. When the number of Roman forces in Britain was reduced in 90 due to military needs on the continent, it became evident that the northern borders would have to be protected in some way. After several experiments, a stone wall known as Hadrian's Wall was built between the estuaries of the Solway and Tyne rivers from 122 AD to 136 AD, named after the Roman emperor who ordered its construction. The need to build such a strong frontier indicates that the northern borders of Roman Britain were never secure from Celtic attacks. In order to prevent these attacks, the Romans once again, during the reign of Antoninus Pius, occupied the area up to the Forth-Clyde line and built a frontier of forts and fortified ramparts along that line in 142 AD. However, even that did not pacify the tribes in the north, so the Romans finally withdrew to Hadrian's Wall in 162 AD, where the border of the Roman world was established until the fall of the Roman Empire. After withdrawing from Antoninus's Wall, the Romans relied on the defense of the northern borders through cooperation with four client tribes - the Dumnonii, Selgovae, Novantae, and Votadini - with whom they developed trade and political ties. Despite all of that, these tribes were never able to deter attacks from the northern tribes on the Roman borders.
SOURCES: