THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN PREVENTING AND COUNTERING VIOLENT EXTREMISM IN AFRICA: A GENDER PERSPECTIVE

Abstract

Africa remains one of the most unstable regions in the world as countries like Nigeria rank 3rd out of the 163 countries affected by Violent Extremism (VE) globally. While acknowledging the threat posed by VE groups on the continent, it is important to note that VE affects men and women differently. This is for the simple reason that women’s rights and physical integrity are usually the first targets in times of conflict. The recent terrorist attacks in Kenya and Nigeria tend to indicate that women are gradually moving away from the storyline of victims to endorse more active or “combatant roles” within VE groups. If women are both victims and perpetrators of conflict, they can conversely be key actors in preventing and countering violent extremism (PCVE) at both local, national and regional levels. This paper argues that the breadth of functions women can serve stretches across all aspects of PCVE and outlines the roles of women in addressing the underlying causes of VE. Finally, building on best practices it provides key recommendations for effective gender mainstreaming frameworks and PCVE strategies for policy making.

Keywords:  

Violent Extremism, Women, Terrorism Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism, Gender. 

Introduction

The ever-changing nature of Violent Extremism (VE) and terrorism coupled with a number of legal and technical concerns have made it impossible for experts to agree on a common definition of these phenomenon as experienced today. The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) refers to violent extremism as “advocating, engaging in, preparing, or otherwise supporting ideologically motivated or justified violence to further social, economic and political objectives.” Additionally, United Nations Security Council Resolution (UNSCR) 1566 (2004) describes the purpose of terrorism as “criminal acts, including against civilians, committed with the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury, or taking of hostages,(...) are under no circumstances justifiable by considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or other similar nature.” For lack of a generally accepted definition, experts have come to the conclusion that no nation is immune against VE and expressed the growing need to move beyond the security response in Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) and adopt a more proactive approach targeted at “tackling conditions conducive to terrorism” while “ensuring respect for human rights for all” as emphasized in the UN Secretary General 2015 Plan of Action to Prevent Violent Extremism. In other words, a whole of a society approach that focuses on building trust with communities by considering the importance of women, youth, educators, religious and community leaders in the drafting and implementation of CVE strategies. In this regard, many UN resolutions and documents have recognized the necessity to increase women’s inclusion and participation to strengthen the gender dimensions of PCVE. Adopted in 2000, UNSCR 1325 establishes that comprehensive engagement with women in conflict prevention, resolution, and rebuilding which is integral to long-term peace and security. It further underscores that “peace and security efforts are more sustainable when women are equal partners in the prevention of violent conflict, the delivery of relief and recovery efforts and in the forging of lasting peace.”  Additionally, UNSCR 2242 (2015) calls for the greater integration of the Women, Peace, and Security (WPS) agenda into counter-terrorism and countering violent extremism measures, including by “integrating women’s participation, leadership and empowerment” in developing VE strategies. In regards to the African context, what is the position of the AU towards the WPS agenda? Why is it so important to mainstream gender in PCVE?

The AU Response to Women, Peace and Security

In its attempt to define terrorism from an African perspective, article 1 of  the 1999 OAU Convention on the Combating of Terrorism refers to the terrorist act as: “any act which is a violation of the criminal laws of a State Party and which may endanger the life, physical integrity or freedom of, or cause serious injury or death to, any person, any number or group of persons or causes or may cause damage to public or private property, natural resources, environmental or cultural heritage  (...)” Building on that understanding, the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (Maputo Protocol adopted in 2003), the Solemn Declaration of Gender Equality in Africa (2004), the Framework for Post Conflict Reconstruction and Development (2006), the Policy Framework for Security Sector Reform (2011) and AGENDA 2063 (2015), has explicitly embraced gender equality and gender mainstreaming, in peace and security structures and processes, as normative and policy imperatives. Article 10 of the Maputo Protocol states that ‘women have a right to a peaceful existence and the right to participate in the promotion of peace’ (AU 2003). It calls on state parties to take appropriate measures to ensure the participation of women in ‘the structures and processes for conflict prevention, management and resolution at local, national regional continental and international levels’ and ‘in all aspects of planning formulation and implementation of post-conflict reconstruction and rehabilitation’ (AU 2003). Furthermore, the Solemn Declaration on Gender Equality calls on the appointment of women as Special Envoys and Special Representatives of the AU (AU 2004). In that effect, a Special Envoy on Women Peace and Security was appointed in January 2014 with a specific mandate to ensure that the voices of women and the vulnerable are heard much more clearly in peace-building and in conflict resolution (AUC 2015:7). Regional Economic Communities (RECs) such as Economic Community Of West African States (ECOWAS) also provide a number of normative frameworks and instruments in compliance with UNSCR 1325. For instance, article 40 of the ECOWAS Conflict Mechanism provides that “ECOWAS shall recognize, encourage and support the role of women in its initiatives for conflict prevention, management, resolution, peace-keeping and security.” Also, the Dakar declaration on the implementation of UNSCR 1325 and its related Regional Action Plan prompted the establishment of two major WPS instruments in ECOWAS: the ECOWAS Gender and Elections Strategic Framework and Action Plan, and the Women, Peace and Security of the ECOWAS Conflict Prevention Framework (ECPF). Key objectives of the 2018-2020 ECPF include “to develop and implement targeted programs to enhance the leadership, negotiation and dispute resolution skills among women” also “to mainstream gender perspective” and “to combat the radicalization of women and girls. It is also worth mentioning that thirteen (13) out of the nineteen (19) AU Member States that have developed and adopted UNSCR 1325 as part of their National Action Plan (NAP) are ECOWAS Member States. It should be recognized that peace and security frameworks and mechanisms in Africa largely comply with the global WPS agenda and that initiatives towards its implementation has gained popular support throughout the continent. In practice, however, there remains a huge gap between the policies in place and the desired outcomes. While Abdullah (2017) notes the AU has “adopted the issues of peace and security and gender equality as part of its social transformation agenda on the continent”, Hudson (2017) criticized the lack of an effective strategy for implementation of these policy commitments and the rather narrow, security-focused conceptualization of the WPS agenda. Also, most AU frameworks have essentially limited the rationale for women’s inclusion and the focus of their work to predominantly one issue: Sexual and Gender- Based Violence (SGBV) as argued by Hendricks (2017). Furthermore, any references to women in Agenda 2063 are often in juxtaposition with ‘youth’, ‘children’ or civil society (Desmidt, Davis, 2019). Even though SGBV is a scourge that must be tackled, it is not the only impact of conflict on women, nor should it be the dominant lens through which the WPS agenda is fostered. At present, the AU has not created a Regional Action Plan (RAP) on UNSCR 1325 and related resolutions. Most importantly, references to the WPS agenda in the ‘AU Master Roadmap of Practical Steps to Silencing the Guns by 2020’ and the APSA Roadmap 2016-2020 are both weak and quite ambiguous as to how the UNSCR 1325 is to be implemented. No mention of the UNSCR 1325 is made in the Master Roadmap, and the word “women” is only stated four times mostly when mentioned in juxtaposition with youth. 

Understanding the role of women in PCVE 

Violent Extremism is a gendered phenomenon: it is experienced differently by women and girls than by men and boys (be it as victims, perpetrators, or those working to prevent or counter the threat). It is important to recognize that while men may constitute the majority of violent extremists, women also play important roles in violent extremist organizations (OCSE, 2019). Simply put, gender is the ways in which a culture or society defines rights, responsibilities, and the identities of men and women in relation to one another (Bravo-Baumann, 2000). For authorities to effectively prevent or counter VE, an awareness on gender power and dynamics is essential. As actors in PCVE, the role of women derives from their traditional and less traditional roles in the society. In other words, as agent of change in the community, in law enforcement and in policy making. According to the US State Department’s Counterterrorism Strategy on Women in Terrorism and Counterterrorism, “historically, girls and women have not been viewed as a terrorist problem or solution, so are not looked at through a counterterrorism lens...women represent an enormously under-utilized resource in the struggle against violent extremism.” In most societies women represent the “weaker sex” they are portrayed as wives and mothers thus harmless and unlikely to perpetrate violence while masculinity is associated to physical prowess, wealth and sexual gratification. This is something VE and terrorist groups have been quick to exploit, not only for their recruitment campaigns but also to carry out attacks. Referencing to the role of women in CVE, Couture argues that “Although their potential in the countering violent extremism paradigm was still relatively innovative, there were examples in which women were identified either directly or indirectly at the forefront or participants in counterterrorism programs”. Because of their role in society women everywhere influence their communities in a very unique way and research shows that they have been identified as a significant resource in the sphere of peacebuilding and conflict prevention since the mid twentieth century. In her book Women Building Peace, Sanam Naraghi makes the following argument: 

The international community, dominated by multilateral bureaucracies and major industrial countries, has begun to take notice of women but seems incapable of addressing the complex reality of their experiences. The pendulum swings to extremes. On the one hand, women are vulnerable, passive, unable to protect themselves, inevitable victims of physical and sexual abuse, and in need or protection. On the other hand, women are the panacea, the internal bulwark against extremism; their political participation is the solution to all evils—particularly those of religious militancy. 

Traditionally relegated to the background, women often have access to vital information, they are the eyes and ears of the community. In Kosovo for instance, women were the first in their communities to voice concerns that men were amassing weapons and training for battle in 1998. These signs were reported well before violence broke out. Due to their position at the heart of kinship structures, women are often best placed to identify, predict and respond to VE threats in the community (Global Counterterrorism Forum). Women can also be key actors in counter narratives messages in their communities, if engaged properly.  Couture affirms that “in their more traditional roles as mothers, wives, sisters, and caregivers, women can serve as effective voices to counter the extremist narrative, speaking either as victims of terrorism and/or as family members who sustain the adverse, injurious impact of terrorist actions.” To capitalize on this critical function held by women, Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) often work with women to raise their awareness on VE as well as signs of children and adolescents becoming interested in violent ideologies. If equipped with the skills to recognize early warning signs of radicalization, mothers can provide the critical thinking skills and environment needed to protect their children from harmful influences. According to Elaine Hargrove “When emboldened through education and/or social and economic programs, women are more vigilant to critically evaluate situations that could indicate or predict a vulnerability or propensity towards violence.” In their less traditional roles, women have also proven to be particularly effective as defense and security personal including law enforcement, as well as policy makers and political leaders. Research has found that policewomen are critical for enhancing the operational effectiveness of police forces, including the reduction of violence and building trust with local communities. According to Fink, Zeiger and Bhulai  “they are more likely to detect and deter the occurrence of human rights abuses, to restrain from using excessive force, and to de-escalate.” Studies have also shown that female UN peacekeepers help to improve situational awareness of the mission by enhancing the understanding of, for example, female victims or young boys and girls. Also, women are most likely to open up to female officers in cases of SGBV for example. In that regards, Miller and Segal state “this can have an impact on the trust communities have in the police and for getting justice, something that in turn can have implications for the ability of law enforcement in PCVE.” In many countries affected by terrorism, civil society has identified negative experiences with law enforcement as a driving factor in the corrosion of state legitimacy. In such contexts, there are also cases in which only female police officers can serve as first responders in the care of female victims of terrorist attacks. (OSCE, 2019). According to the National Center for Women & Policing in the United States, women officers receive more favorable evaluations and fewer citizen complaints, which potentially leaves them better positioned to develop community-oriented policing. Because men and women experience VE differently, both genders need to participate in decision making process as well as in the practical implementation of PCVE strategies. Jonge Oudraat argues that “women’s voices on the ground are often ignored in policy debates and decisions” Further, if women serve in leadership positions in government institutions responsible for PCVE, this helps ensure that these efforts present a whole- of-society approach and holistically address the gendered drivers of VE (Fransen et al.) It is in recognition of this role that articles 1 of the UNSCR 1325 “Urges Member States to ensure increased representation of women at all decision-making levels in national, regional and international institutions and mechanisms for the prevention, management, and resolution of conflict.” In its 2013 Handbook, the Organization for the Security Co-operation in Europe (OCSE) asserts that the involvement of women as ‘policy shapers, educators, community members and activists’ is essential to prevent terrorism and Couture argues that “empowering women in positions, such as politicians in government and as teachers, allows them to act as powerful agents of change in counterterrorism by affecting catalysts and intervening early. Women can be critical interlocutors between government institutions, including law enforcement and communities, in particular, helping to identify unusual activities and harmful practices within the community. Voice out the needs and challenges they face in their specific context, enabling more tailored and people centered approaches in designing VE strategies. Also as members of CSO’s and municipal security councils, women can interact with local law enforcement representatives and alert them of gendered safety issues (Sierra Leon market women alerting WANEP). 

Best Practices and lessons learned from women in PCVE

VE is a complex phenomenon that cuts across a multiplicity of factors including race, ethnicity, religion, gender, class and age etc. As the focus on VE is shifting towards a more holistic approach putting communities at the forefront of PCVE initiatives, best practices from practitioners and grassroots leaders is becoming more critical. Even though experiences on the role of the women in peacebuilding is less apparent, there is a clear value in examining some best practices and lessons learned from PCVE initiatives that putting women at the forefront of the fight against extremism. In terms of gender sensitive community policing, the Jendouba model in Tunisia is a good example of communities and law enforcement collaboration. In response to the 2015 terrorist attacks in Tunisia, the Tunisian Ministry of Interior supported by the Dutch government and Aktis Strategy ‘s counter extremism team has developed a community-police model in 2017. According to Marsh, White and Chalghaf, the Jendouba project is one of the few Category II initiatives operational in fragile and conflicted areas. The program supports local police officers to include a gender analysis in their community security analyses to make sure they consider safety concerns and experiences from the perspective of both women and men, as well as both boys and girls. Based on findings from a the 2018 OCSE report, the Jendouba project revealed that:  

-        Women community liaison officers are as engaged as their male peers and contribute and lead on equal footing with them within the constraints of their rank and daily duties; 

-        On the whole, women youth mentors are as, if not more, engaged and influential than their male peers, and also perform better in the delivery of their duties, something that their male peers have welcomed; 

-        There are signs of women’s perspectives and capacities being incorporated into local-level prevention plans and the activities of youth mentoring teams specifically involve women and women’s organizations in upstream prevention measures. 

In its attempt to mobilize communities, including women in the fight against violent extremism, Morocco’s experience in PCVE is considered for many a model of success. This is mainly due to the strategic renewal of legal reforms and other subsequent progressive CVE programs that the country undertook to empower women socially, politically, and economically. The establishment of female preachers or the “mourchidates” in 2005 by the Ministry of Habous and Islamic Affairs has been instrumental in addressing some of the root causes of VE at the community level promoting religious moderation and tolerance to curb radicalization. This revolutionary development for the advancement of women in Morocco offered an opportunity for women to act as agents of positive change in their communities throughout Morocco. As part of his introductory remarks during the official launching of the program, the Minister of Islamic Affairs, Ahmed Touafiq made the following statement: 

“Society is like a human body and the body needs to be looked after: it needs to be fed and its health has to be preserved... Terrorism is the extreme example of a serious illness in society. You cannot leave a body until it gets into a crisis. You have to feed the body to avoid it falling into a state of crisis and disease. There are all sorts of measures you can take to prevent a crisis and this is one of them.”

In addition to their primary task which is to promote a more tolerant and liberal version of Islam the mourchidates also engage with youth (ages 8-22) after school, provide skills to women and work in the prison system with female inmates in Rabat and Casablanca. Since the first batch in 2006, about 609 mourchidates have graduated (Hedaya) and the program has received considerable recognition from the Arab world and the international community at large. Numerous networks for connecting women across the globe have been established by CSOs. We can site among others the Women and Extremism (WaE) network of the Institute for Strategic Development (ISD), Women without Borders (WwB) and its Sisters Against Violent Extremism (SAVE) platform. In East Africa, Women lead CSO’s such as the Women in International Security – Horn of Africa ( WIIS) and Sisters Without Borders have been instrumental in educating and mobilizing women affected by VE in Kenya. Having the objective of building the capacity of women in local communities and advancing the professional development of women in the field of peace and security, WIIS also supports networks of women working on PCVE. Through the Gender, Peace and Security Roundtable Series, the missing peace initiative and the Next Generation Symposium, WIIS continues to provide opportunities for women practitioners and policy makers to work together on addressing the root causes of VE in their specific context. These platforms facilitate knowledge exchange between women in a multitude of contexts affected by violent extremism. Developed based on the results of a study conducted by Wwb in Pakistan, Israel, Palestine, Northern Ireland and Nigeria in 2013, the Mother Schools Model brings together concerned mothers and build their capacity in personal, communication and parenting skills so they can recognize and react to early warning signs of possible radicalization in their children. According to the 2018 WwB overview, in 2017 alone, SAVE implemented projects in 8 countries (Austria, Belgium, Germany, Jordan, Macedonia, Tanzania, Uganda and United Kingdom) trained over 1,800 mothers and 40 teachers. Based on the literature review including statements made by policy makers and practitioners, key elements have emerged as lessons learned from the involvement of women in PCVE and the conflict resolution spectrum in general. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) outlined lessons learned from a comprehensive study of projects from the United Nations Development Fund for Women, UNESCO, United Nations Development Program, (UNDP) and the United Nations Population Fund, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) on best practices relating to the inclusion of women in peacebuilding and non-violent resolution in Africa. Several best practices that are also applicable to women in PCVE include:

·       “Women, with their multiple responsibilities in the community—particularly in the management of resources such as water and food—are well positioned to feel and see early warning signs of conflict; 

·       Women must participate in all aspects and at all levels of the design, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the processes of peace building and peace maintenance; 

·       Programs to sustain peace through peace education in schools and the community must be initiated and strengthened; 

·       Extensive consultation and outreach should be made with women at all levels in society. The participation of women representing all political and social groups is at the core of successful peace initiatives;

·       Women have shown to have the particular ability to listen to all sides with compassion and understanding, thus contributing to a non-threatening environment for dialogue; 

·       Post-conflict reconstruction must include the empowerment of women through education, income generating activities, the teaching of leadership skills, mediation and negotiation skills, fund raising, designing project proposals, lobbying, and advocacy; 

·       After hostilities have ceased, women’s continuing role in sustaining peace must be acknowledged and maintained, they should not be relegated to the domestic area; 

·       Women must advocate for social change to set aside patriarchal values and structures that oppress women and inhibit their participation in social, economic, and political spheres—ideally, these principles should be constitutionally- protected...the women’s movement should then meet the challenge of informing and educating women to take full advantage of these rights.”

The US State Department’s “Counterterrorism Strategy on Women and Counter- Terrorism” strives to recognize the role of women in countering violent extremism and their position as an “essential function of harnessing their response to building healthier, more resilient communities.” The strategy, which supports the NAP and its implementation strategy, states that “women’s power in the promotion of conflict prevention and peace building movements has also been demonstrated in areas suffering from terrorism, such as Northern Ireland, Colombia, and to a lesser publicized extent, Pakistan, Somalia, and Yemen.”  The policy’s objectives include: 

1.     Capacity building – women’s involvement and inclusion in capacity building in civil society and security sectors; 

2.     Participation – women’s participation and feedback in counterterrorism policies and programming; 

3.     Protection – ensuring women’s rights are not negatively affected by counterterrorism policies; 

4.      Engagement – engagement with women in counterterrorism dialogues. 

Even though efforts to determine what works or not in PCVE are ongoing, these key lessons have emerged from previous and current PCVE initiatives which are being applied with remarkable success around the world.

Recommendations 

Women remain important actors of VE and critical stakeholders for successful PCVE strategies. Calling on countries to involve women in CT and PCVE initiatives, the WPS agenda emphasizes on the involvement of women at the community level, in law enforcement agencies, especially in peacekeeping missions and leadership positions. Both anecdotal and empirical evidence suggests that women can contribute to strengthening overall situational awareness in security efforts, in particular in vulnerable situations (OCSE, 2018).  The different roles women occupy within the VE spectrum needs to be critically analyzed as to generate gender sensitive policies and strategies in addressing the drivers of VE in local communities. In so doing, the following points should be considered. 

-        Women do not represent a homogeneous group that follows a unique line of action. As Elin Bjanegard rightly points out “women do not operate in a vacuum” why should policies aimed at involving women in PCVE do? Women’s experiences, motivations and abilities are unique and differ from one community to the other and from one home to another within that same community. Age, class and ideological affiliation are key elements that need to be taken into account when engaging with women on VE related matters as to avoid replications of stereotypes generally associated to women and conflict. 

-        Women alone cannot change their communities. The function of women in family structures must be complemented by an understanding of the integral function that adult male family members have in the life of adolescents. According to OCSE (2018) in many cases, male family members have more direct relationships with the younger men and boys in their families. This is also a factor that demonstrates the need for comprehensive gender awareness to be able to detect potentially harmful changes and influences in a society, particularly on children and youth. Once identified, male role models could work along with women groups to build healthier home structures within the communities; 

-        Women are not inherently experts in gender issues. Actually, referring to the socially constructed roles attributed to men and women in the society, gender tends to be assimilated to women empowerment and both expressions are often used interchangeably. Bjerten-Gunther argues that conversations about gender still rarely include men and people who do not fit expected gender norms. This reproduces the idea of men and masculinities as the default rather than as one of several genders. A report of the High-level Independent Panel of the United Nations Peace Operations (HIPPO) noted that one of the challenges in implementing UNSCR 1325 was that the (WPS) Agenda is mostly seen as a ‘women’s issue’. In peacekeeping for instance, the fact that women are more likely to report SGBV to uniform women does not necessarily mean that they have to handle the case. By the virtue of their biological attributes both men and women might be naturally more fit to address certain incidents but their skills and professionalism should also be considered in determining their participation in the peace operations. 

Conclusion 

This paper intends to raise awareness on the roles that women can and do play in preventing VE and provide key recommendations based on best practices and lessons learned from PCVE strategies and initiatives relating to women’s participation in peace and security. As mothers, sisters, wives, teachers, law enforcement personals and decision makers, women offer a unique, essential perspective when addressing and identifying CVE challenges and solutions. When empowered in relevant and ways, women can serve as effective bulwarks against extremism. The adoption of the UNSCR 1325, UNSCR 2242 and subsequent resolutions have been instrumental in the fight for equal inclusion and participation of women in the peace and security field, both in their traditional and less traditional roles. Furthermore, this international acknowledgement of the WPS agenda served as a propellant apparatus for the adoption of similar frameworks promoting the active participation of women in peace process across the world. Continental and regional bodies such as the AU and ECOWAS respectively have made it a priority to involve women in their peace and security architectures through the APSA Strategic roadmap, Agenda 2063, the appointment of the Women Peace and Security Special envoy and the Women, Peace and Security of the ECOWAS Conflict Prevention Framework (ECPF) to only site a few. Although these do not adequately exhaust the role that women ought to play in the fight against VE and radicalization, these frameworks remain good entry point for the practical implementation of the WPS agenda in Africa. The meaningful involvement of women in peace processes also entails gender sensitive studies and frameworks and the gender mainstreaming of PCVE strategies, especially in the security sector. The most efficient ways to do so are to ensure that women are involve at all levels of decision making and engaged in the drafting and actual implementation of these policies. Efforts aimed at tackling the root causes of VE should continue to allocate appropriate resources to empower women and strive for gender equality as there is no better long-term, sustainable deterrent against VE and radicalization than educated, prosperous, safe, resilient, and empowered communities

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 

AU: African Union

ECOWAS: Economic Community Of West African States 

ECPF: Conflict Prevention Framework 

CSOs: Civil Society Organizations 

CVE: Countering Violent Extremism

ISD: Institute for Strategic Development 

OAU: Organization of African Unity 

NAP: National Action Plan 

PCVE: Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism 

RAP: Regional Action Plan 

RECs: Regional Economic Communities 

SAVE: Sisters Against Violent Extremism 

SGBV: Sexual and Gender- Based Violence 

UN: United Nations

UNDP: United Nations Development Program

UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 

UNHCR: United Nations Population Fund, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

UNSCR: United Nations Security Council Resolution 

UN Women: United Nations Development Fund for Women

USAID: United States Agency for International Development 

VE: Violent Extremism 

WaE: Women and Extremism network 

WIIS: Women in International Security

WPS: Women, Peace, and Security 

WwB: Women without Borders

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