The Role of Motivation in Adult Education

This article explores the significant role motivation plays in learning, and particularly, adult education (AdEd). Although the central argument is motivation and how it affects AdEd learning processes, the overlaps with human resource development (HRD) will be highlighted as applicable. The paper addresses several questions often raised by AdEd and HRD practitioners, and some of these include: Is motivation an innate quality that an individual has or hasn’t? Are motivation drives the same in AdEd and in HRD? Can motivation be enhanced? Can motivational strategies be employed to support learning in AdEd and in HRD? What can educators do to help motivate participants in AdEd and HRD programs?

Motivation Defined

There have been many attempts to reach a single definition of learning motivation. P.R. Pintrich and D.H. Schunk (1996) discussed the efforts made to define motivation and said: “Definitions of motivation are numerous and varied, and there is much disagreement over the precise nature of motivation” (p. 4). Long (1983) expressed a similar conclusion when he wrote: “Motivation as an important hypothetical construct in explaining numerous behaviors is variously conceptualized” (p. 228). However, it’s universally acknowledged that motivation is an important learning variable in adult education and in HRD programs, as it influences positively or negatively the input, output and outcomes of any teaching/learning process. Although immeasurable and elusive, the effects of motivation are observed everyday in any learning setting. Whenever we feel a desire or need for something, we are in a state of motivation. Marshall (1987) defined the term “motivation to learn”, as the meaningfulness, value, and benefits of academic tasks to the learner regardless of whether or not they are intrinsically interesting. Ames (1990) said that motivation to learn is characterized by long-term, quality involvement in learning and commitment to the process of learning. Noe (1986) suggested that, when there is no motivation, individuals who may have the ability to master the training content, might fail to do so. This reflects the pivotal role which motivation plays in the process of learning. Pintrich & Schunk (1996) emphasized the central role of motivation in learning when they made the following statement:

Students motivated to learn about a topic being discussed by a teacher are apt to engage in activities they believe will help them learn. Thus, they are likely to attend carefully to the teacher’s instruction and mentally organize and rehearse the material to commit it to memory. (p. 6)

One AdEd example that well represents this statement is the Saudi Aramco Health Education Program, where it is generally accepted that participants who volunteer to attend HE classes are usually highly motivated, which reflects positively on their classroom performance.

Sources of Motivation in Adult Learning

Although learners may be equally motivated to perform a task, the sources of their motivation may be different. A learner who is intrinsically motivated undertakes an activity for its own sake, for the enjoyment it provides, the learning it permits, or the feelings of accomplishment it evokes. Lepper (1988) found that when intrinsically motivated, learners tend to employ strategies that demand more effort and that enable them to process information more deeply. This applies to AdEd learning, as participants in these programs are more interested in learning mainly for personal advancement, enjoyment and socializing with others. Lepper also found that an extrinsically motivated learner performs in order to obtain some reward or avoid some punishment external to the activity itself. Participants in HRD programs well represent an extrinsic type of motivation as there is often a reward awaiting those who meet HRD program requirements. This reward is often financial, promotional or mere appreciation from management. In their effort to define motivation in its intrinsic and extrinsic forms, Pintrich & Schunk (1996) made the following statement:

‘intrinsic’ motivation refers to motivation to engage in an activity for its own sake. People who are intrinsically motivated work on tasks because they find them enjoyable. Task motivation is its own reward and doesn’t depend on explicit rewards or other external constraints. In contrast, ‘extrinsic’ motivation is motivation to engage in an activity as a means to an end. Individuals who are extrinsically motivated work on tasks because they believe that participation will result in desirable outcomes such as a reward, praise, or avoidance of punishment.     (pp. 257-258).

Motivation Styles and Adult Education

Adults engage in continual education for various reasons. Houle (1961) conducted a study on what motivates learners. He identified three sub-groups to categorize motivational styles:

1. Goal-Oriented:

These learners use education to accomplish clear-cut objectives. This applies to participants in both HRD and AdEd programs. Enrollees in AdEd programs are often interested in self-development or simply learning for the sake of learning. However, as for participants in HRD programs, the objective is often to bridge a gap in performance or to acquire new skills that meet business objectives.

2. Activity-orientated:

Learners in this category take part because of the social contact. To a large extent, this applies to AdEd participants as their selection of any activity is essentially based on the numbers and kinds of human relationships it will yield.

3. Learning-oriented: These learners seek knowledge for its own sake. They are usually intrinsically motivated. They enjoy exposure to new experiences in life, and they don’t seek rewards as a result of learning. This type of learning applies more to enrollees in AdEd programs. Tough (1979) simplified Houl’s motivational model by suggesting that adults learn because of (1) an increase in self-esteem, (2) a sense of pleasing and impressing others, and (3) some pleasure or satisfaction. Recognizing the unique motivational styles of adult learners can help AdEd and HRD practitioners identify the types of educational products that will satisfy their needs. For example, self-study programs are not going to motivate ‘activity-oriented’ learners unless the program contains some element of interaction. If learners are not interested in a topic, they’re less likely to stick with it and continue to learn. Vella (1997) stated that the big issues are relevancy and immediacy. Information has to be relevant to the learners’ current wants and needs, and it must be useful to their lives. Learning should always make a difference. This applies to enrollees in both HRD and AdEd programs. The knowledge learners acquire should be relevant to their jobs and lives. It should also have a positive impact on their attitudes. If learning is irrelevant to participants or has no or little value, then it becomes unjustifiable.

Adult Learning Styles and Motivation

In his theory of adult learning, Knowles (1970) differentiated the way adults learn from the way children do. These differences have shown that adult learners are practical and problem-solvers. In many cases they are goal-directed, problem-focused, self-directed and autonomous. Furthermore, adults usually have accumulated significant life experiences. Based on these differences, instructors of adult learners need to focus more on the process and less on the content being taught. Presentation strategies such as simulations, case studies, and role-playing tend to be most effective with adult learners. As mature and well-established learners, participants in HRD and AdEd programs share similar learning styles. However, the only difference is that HRD program participants are business-oriented while others involved in AdEd activities are more interested in their own personal goals. However, it is worth noting that sometimes these personal goals don’t contradict business objectives. 

Interwoven with learning styles is the element of motivation. Although a lot of research has been done on motivating children to learn, very little has been done to study methods and techniques to motivate adult learners. Cantor (1992) researched this area and found that adult learners are motivated by the need to: (1) make or maintain social relationships [AdEd]; (2) meet external expectations (supervisor’s satisfaction) [HRD]; (3) learn their jobs better (for efficiency and increased feelings of self-worth) [HRD&AdEd]; (4) develop professional advancement [HRD]; (5) escape or stimulation [AdEd]; and (6) know more about their areas of interest [AdEd&HRD].

These six factors represent either HRD or AdEd learning functions, while some others are shared between the two. Based on what has been discussed, educators should always be aware of the potential motivation behind the reasons students enroll in specific programs. Once motivation drives are understood, the presentation styles can be tailored for more effective instruction and learning. For example, group discussion tends to be very effective with adults as it partially meets the need for communication and social interaction. HRD and AdEd instructional designers can benefit from the previous list when developing new programs that serve the needs of their target populations. Wlodkowski (1985) said that Knowles identified adults by two criteria: an individual who performs roles associated by the common culture with adults, and an individual who perceives himself or herself to be responsible for his or her own life. (Laird 1985, pp. 125-126) in his discussion of andragogy, said that it recognizes the maturity of the learner, and is based on planning between the learner and the instructor. It’s also collaborative between teacher-learner and learner-learner. It is problem-focused rather than content-focused. It also involves active participation and allows for experiential activities.

The comparison between andragogy and pedagogy has demonstrated that early activities need to allow maximum participation by learners so that “they can invest their values and experience in the learning process” (Laird, 1985, p. 125). Laird also pointed out that the primary function of the adults’ teacher is to manage, or guide, andragogic processes, and not to manage the content, which is a traditional approach in pedagogy. Laird also mentioned the need for the adult learner to be actively involved in establishing the learning objectives. Andragogic sessions vary significantly from pedagogic classes. According to (Laird, 1985, p. 126), “andragogy raises interesting questions about the role of the instructor”. As stated earlier, in andragogy, the role of the instructor is to manage the process, not the content. This is applicable to both AdEd and HRD. The exception in this respect is teaching low-level beginner adults where teachers need to follow a more pedagogic, teacher-focused approach to help attain instructional objectives. As an HRD example, this is a case very common with junior level trainees at Saudi Aramco training centers.

Factors Affecting the Development of Learners’ Motivation

According to Brophy (1987), motivation to learn is a competence acquired through general experience but stimulated most directly through modeling, communication of expectations, and direct instruction or socialization by significant others (teachers and peers). Learners' environments shape the attitudes they develop toward learning. If they are encouraged to explore the world and seek new knowledge, they are given a message that learning is worthwhile and satisfying. Raffini (1993) said that the beliefs instructors have about teaching and learning and the nature of the expectations they hold for learners also exert a powerful influence. An HRD example in this respect would be what Saudi Aramco has been doing to promote the concept of self-development amongst its employees. This effort along with existing company policies has created a continuing learning environment that encouraged many individuals to pursue learning. These efforts put together have created a learning atmosphere throughout the corporation, which has contributed to enhanced learner motivation.

Motivating Adult Learners

Various factors may motivate adult learners. Wlodkowski (1985) listed a number of factors that have impact on motivation:

Attitude: the learner’s combination of concepts, information and emotions about learning that results in a predisposition to respond favorably.

Need: the current condition of the learner, experienced as an internal force moving the learner toward the goal.

Stimulation: any change in perception or experience of the external environment that prompts the learner’s action.

Affect: the learner’s emotional experience (feelings and concerns)

Competence: the learner’s sense of effectively interacting with the environment.

Reinforcement: any learning event that maintains or increases the probability that the learner will achieve the appropriate response.

Those motivational factors exert maximum influence at particular times in a learning sequence. At the beginning of the learning process, the learner’s attitudes (toward the environment, the topic at hand, and the instructor) and needs (immediate and at the time of the learning) should be addressed. During the learning sequence, stimulation (via the learning experience itself) and the learner’s affect (feelings about self, topic etc.) should be carefully monitored and acknowledged. At the end of the sequence, the learner must feel a sense of competence (increased value because of this new learning) and should be reinforced. Appropriate attention and response to these factors at the appropriate time during the learning process can dramatically boost motivation. Keller (1987) outlined a strategy for attending to these factors, his (ARCS) model. Programs should get participants’ attention (A) with content that is attractive, contain content with high relevance (R), stimulate the development of participants’ confidence (C), and result in learner satisfaction (S). Smith (1982) added that learners’ expectations are critical to their motivation and that programs should create the expectation those learners will succeed. Care should also be taken that excessive structure and authority in the program do not become a de-motivation for learning. With regard to HRD programs, professional advancement to meet business requirements is the engine behind motivation in many cases. However, self-esteem, the pleasure of learning new experiences, social factors and improving one’s ability to serve the society are motivators for those involved in AdEd activities. Learning for the sake of learning, and concomitantly developing a sense of self-efficacy, are other motivators for many participants involved in AdEd and HRD programs. A search for stimulation and relief from existing routines of home or work may motivate some AdEd participants. Carefully designed AdEd and HRD instructional materials, which consider such motivating factors, are likely to be more effective. Knox (1980) stated that being aware of the discrepancy between their current proficiency and the desired level of performance can motivate adults to seek additional knowledge and skills. The bridging of this gap is more of an HRD learning motivation, as the objective here is mainly to address an area of weakness in a business-related performance. Mature adults usually have endured “marker” experiences, such as getting a job, being fired, changing careers, having a family etc. According to Sheehy (1976), these marker experiences can provide intrinsic motivation for learning. Ausubel (1978) found that effective instruction will build on what the learner already knows, and will be viewed to bridge the proficiency gap between what the learner now knows and the desired standard.

Instructional designers who develop adult learning programs should draw on relevant principles of cognitive psychology and remain sensitive to social and environmental influences in the design process. But the inclination of adults to manage their own learning suggests that they may be more motivated to become self-directed and accomplished learners if they are involved in the planning of the program and in establishing outcome goals and evaluation methods. In this respect, AdEd programs are more tolerant as the ultimate objective is to meet the learner’s needs. However, HRD programs may not always address individual interests, as the ultimate goal in any HRD function is to meet business requirements.

Enhancement of Motivation in the Classroom

Pintrich & Schunk (1996) suggested four principles to improve motivation and performance in th classroom setting:

1. Set clear and specific goals. This is applicable to both AdEd and HRD learning settings. Setting clear goals specifies for both instructors and student what they are going to teach and learn.
2. Goals should be challenging and difficult, but not outside the range of students’ capabilities. This is applicable to AdEd and HRD learning settings. It’s more significant to HRD, as participants might have no choice but to enroll in the program simply because it is a business requirement. If such a program doesn’t address their real capabilities, then it will end up rather frustrating and even counterproductive.
3. Set both proximal and distal goals for students. Bandura (1986) suggested that setting proximal goals could have positive effects on self-efficacy and performance. Instructors can help students set proximal goals by designing contracts with them that specify a series of sub-goals, which lead to larger distal goals. This will enhance students’ interest and motivation. This is applicable to learning situations in both AdEd and HRD. It’s more effective with HRD programs as these are highly structured with clear training objectives.
4. Provide feedback that increases students’ self-efficacy for obtaining the goal. Any feedback provided should encourage students to continue working toward attaining their goals. This may include the employment of extrinsic rewards in support of this objective. This again is applicable to enrollees in AdEd as well as in HRD programs, as they all need feedback in order to know how they are doing now and what is required in order to accomplish better results.

Conclusion

It is evident that motivation is a key contributor to the success of adult education and HRD programs. As cited by several scholars throughout this paper, poor motivation or lack of motivation has always resulted in limited or no attainment of program objectives. Sources of motivation for HRD and adult education are not alike. For example, motivation drives for AdEd programs are mainly intrinsic, whereas, extrinsic motivation is often the driving force for those who get involved in HRD programs. The reason is that participants in AdEd activities are usually pushed by personal goals and therefore, they enjoy the learning experience and seek no reward but self-satisfaction. However, participants in HRD programs are often driven by corporate needs and business requirements and they are often enrolled in HRD programs to bridge a gap between their current performance and the desired standards. To many of them, training is just a means to an end. Once curriculum developers and instructional designers fully understand what motivates their audiences, then better instructional materials will be developed to address their learning needs and program requirements. However, whether a learning setting is HRD or AdEd, motivation will always play the pivotal role in realizing effective learning outcomes. 

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