ROAD SAFETY: MODERN TECHNOLOGY
Ritesh Pandit
PORTFOLIO DIRECTOR | Green Infra (Airports, Metros, Railways, EV Charging, Data Centres, Grid, GIS & AIS, Tr Line) & IT (ERP) | Net Zero Achiever: >16GWp Solar, 2.3GW Wind, >4GWh BESS, 300MW GH2, 5280 eBuses.
According to the?Euro NCAP 2025 Roadmap?(PDF), more than ninety per cent of road accidents are caused by human error. The main contributory factors are speed, driving under the influence, drowsiness, fatigue, and distraction. In addition, sudden incapacitation has become a growing issue as our population ages.
Most vehicle accidents caused by human error can be avoided with Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) or Advance Driver Monitoring System (ADMS). The role of both systems is to prevent deaths and injuries by reducing the number of vehicle accidents and the severe impact of those that cannot be avoided.
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What is ADAS?
Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS). The role of ADAS is to prevent deaths and injuries by reducing the number of vehicle accidents and the severe impact of those that cannot be avoided.
Essential safety-critical ADAS applications include:
These lifesaving systems are vital to ensuring the success of ADAS applications, incorporating the latest interface standards and running multiple vision-based algorithms to support real-time multimedia, vision co-processing, and sensor fusion subsystems.
ADAS Applications
Significant automotive safety improvements in the past (e.g., shatter-resistant glass, three-point seatbelts, airbags) were passive safety measures designed to minimize injury during an accident. Today, ADAS systems actively improve safety with the help of embedded vision by reducing the occurrence of accidents and injury to occupants.
The implementation of cameras in the vehicle involves a new AI function that uses sensor fusion to identify and process objects. Sensor fusion, similar to the human brain process information, combines large amounts of data with the help of image recognition software, ultrasound sensors, lidar, and radar. This technology can physically respond faster than a human driver ever could. It can analyze streaming video in real time, recognize what the video shows, and determine how to react to it.
Some of the most common ADAS applications are:
1. Adaptive Cruise Control
Adaptive cruise control (ACC) is particularly helpful on the highway, where drivers can find it difficult to monitor their speed and other cars over a long period of time. Advanced cruise control can automatically accelerate, slow down, and at times stop the vehicle, depending on the actions other objects in the immediate area.
2. Glare-Free High Beam and Pixel Light
Glare-free high beam and pixel light uses sensors to adjust to darkness and the vehicle’s surroundings without disturbing oncoming traffic. This new headlight application detects the lights of other vehicles and redirects the vehicle’s lights away to prevent other road users from being temporarily blinded.?
3. Adaptive Light Control
Adaptive light control adapts the vehicle’s headlights to external lighting conditions. It changes the strength, direction, and rotation of the headlights depending on the vehicle’s environment and darkness.
4. Automatic Parking?
Automatic parking helps inform drivers of blind spots so they know when to turn the steering wheel and stop. Vehicles equipped with rearview cameras have a better view of their surroundings than traditional side mirrors. Some systems can even complete parking automatically without the driver’s help by combining the input of multiple sensors.
5. Autonomous Valet Parking
Autonomous valet parking is a new technology that works via vehicle sensor meshing, 5G network communication, with cloud services that manage autonomous vehicles in parking areas. The vehicles sensors provide the vehicle with information about where it is, where it needs to go, and how to get there safely. All this information is methodically evaluated and used to perform drive acceleration, braking, and steering until the vehicle is safely parked.
6. Navigation System
Car navigation systems provide on-screen instructions and voice prompts to help drivers follow a route while concentrating on the road. Some navigation systems can display exact traffic data and, if necessary, plan a new route to avoid traffic jams.?Advanced systems may even offer Heads Up Displays (HuD) to reduce driver distraction.
7. Night Vision
Night vision systems enable drivers to see things that would otherwise be difficult or impossible to see at night. There are two categories of night vision implementations: Active night vision systems project infrared light, and passive systems rely on the thermal energy that comes from cars, animals, and other objects.
?8.?Blind Spot Monitoring
Blind spot detection systems use sensors to provide drivers with important information that is otherwise difficult or impossible to obtain.?Some systems sound an alarm when they detect an object in the driver’s blind spot, such as when the driver tries to move into an occupied lane.?
?9.?Automatic Emergency Braking
Automatic emergency braking uses sensors to detect whether the driver is in the process of hitting another vehicle or other objects on the road. This application can measure the distance of nearby traffic and alert the driver to any danger. Some emergency braking systems can take preventive safety measures, such as tightening seat belts, reducing speed, and adaptive steering to avoid a collision.
?10.?Crosswind Stabilization
This relatively new ADAS feature supports the vehicle in counteracting strong crosswinds. The sensors in this system can detect strong pressure acting on the vehicle while driving and apply brakes to the wheels affected by crosswind disturbance.?
?11.?Driver Drowsiness Detection
Driver drowsiness detection warns drivers of sleepiness or other road distractions. There are several ways to determine whether a driver’s attention is decreasing. In one case, sensors can analyze the movement of the driver’s head, and heart rate to determine whether they indicate drowsiness. Other systems issue driver alerts similar to the warning signals for lane detection.
?12.?Driver Monitoring System
The driver monitoring system is another way of measuring the driver’s attention. The camera sensors can analyze whether the driver’s eyes are on the road or drifting. Driver monitoring systems can alert drivers with noises, vibrations in the steering wheel, or flashing lights. In some cases, the car will take the extreme measure of stopping the vehicle completely.?
?13.?5G and V2X
This hot new 5G ADAS feature, with increased reliability and lower latency, provides communication between the vehicle and other vehicles or pedestrians, generally referred to as V2X. Today, millions of vehicles connect to cellular networks for real-time navigation. This application will enhance existing methods and the cellular network to improve situational awareness, control or suggest speed adjustments to account for traffic congestion, and update GPS maps with real-time updates. V2X is essential to support over-the-air (OTA) software updates for the now-extensive range of software-driven systems in cars, from map updates to bug fixes to security updates and more.?
The future of ADAS
The increasing amount of automotive electronic hardware and software requires significant changes in today’s automobile design process to address the convergence of conflicting goals:
The *"SmartPhonezation" of ADAS applications is the beginning steps to realising?**autonomous vehicles.
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Safety, Security, and Reliability
OEM delivers the broadest breadth of automotive solutions to help hardware, software, and system designers comply with stringent functional safety standards like ISO 26262 and cybersecurity standards like ISO 21434 —and to do so quickly and efficiently. For example, the?*** "SAFETY AWARENESS SOLUTION"?makes your automotive SoC design and verification highly predictable to achieve target Automotive Safety Integrity Levels (ASILs) with the most negligible impact on QoR.
***The Safety-Aware Solution includes a portfolio of design tools to help you:
Software-Defined Vehicles
Representing the future of vehicle design, the software-defined vehicle, whose features and functions are primarily enabled through software, is a result of the ongoing transformation of the automobile from a static product to an extension of the driver's interests. OEM enables automotive software developers to build security and quality into all stages of their lifecycle and start their development process months earlier.
INTERNATIONAL PARTICIPATION:
ISO 26262 Functional Safety
Modern vehicles have up to 100 million lines of code, over 100 electronic control units (ECUs), and up to 200 sensors. With so much riding on this software and hardware, your automotive designs must meet the functional safety requirements outlined by ISO 26262. From OEM unified functional safety verification platform to ASIL D-certified tools and IP compliant with ASIL B and ASIL D, OEM delivers what you need to create safer cars.
ISO 21434 Cybersecurity
As vehicles become increasingly intelligent and connected, they can also become vulnerable to cybersecurity risks. Building on ISO 26262, ISO SAE 21434 provides a framework for addressing the cybersecurity of road vehicles. The standard covers security management, risk management, and cybersecurity within road vehicles' product development and post-development stages. In addition, OEM helps you build security and quality through development, testing, and across the automotive supply chain so you can defend against malicious attacks.
**What is an Autonomous Car
An autonomous car is a vehicle capable of sensing its environment and operating without human involvement. A human passenger is not required to take control of the vehicle at any time, nor is a human passenger required to be present in the vehicle at all. An autonomous car can go anywhere a traditional car goes and do everything that an experienced human driver does.
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) currently defines six levels*^ of driving automation ranging from Level 0 (fully manual) to Level 5 (fully autonomous). The U.S. Department of Transportation has adopted these levels.?
*^The 6 Levels of Vehicle Autonomy Explained
Most vehicles on the road today are Level 0: manually controlled. The human provides the "dynamic driving task" although there may be systems in place to help the driver. An example would be the emergency braking system―since it technically doesn’t "drive" the vehicle, it does not qualify as automation.?
This is the lowest level of automation. The vehicle features a single automated system for driver assistance, such as steering or accelerating (cruise control). Adaptive cruise control, where the vehicle can be kept at a safe distance behind the next car, qualifies as Level 1 because the human driver monitors the other aspects of driving such as steering and braking.?
This means advanced driver assistance systems or ADAS. The vehicle can control both steering and accelerating/decelerating. Here automation falls short of self-driving because a human sits in the driver’s seat and can take control of the car at any time. Tesla Autopilot and Cadillac (General Motors) Super Cruise systems both qualify as Level 2.
The jump from Level 2 to Level 3 is substantial from a technological perspective, but subtle if not negligible from a human perspective.
Level 3 vehicles have “environmental detection” capabilities and can make informed decisions for themselves, such as accelerating past a slow-moving vehicle. But―they still require a human override. The driver must remain alert and ready to take control of the system is unable to execute the task.
Almost two years ago, Audi (Volkswagen) announced that the next generation of the A8―their flagship sedan―would be the world’s first production Level 3 vehicle. And they delivered. The 2019 Audi A8L arrives in commercial dealerships this Fall. It features Traffic Jam Pilot, which combines a lidar scanner with advanced sensor fusion and processing power (plus built-in redundancies should a component fail).
However, while Audi was developing their marvel of engineering, the regulatory process in the U.S. shifted from federal guidance to state-by-state mandates for autonomous vehicles. So for the time being, the A8L is still classified as a Level 2 vehicle in the United States and will ship without the key hardware and software required to achieve Level 3 functionality. In Europe, however, Audi will roll out the full Level 3 A8L with Traffic Jam Pilot (in Germany first).?
The key difference between Level 3 and Level 4 automation is that Level 4 vehicles can intervene if things go wrong or there is a system failure. In this sense, these cars do not require human interaction in most circumstances. However, a human still has the option to manually override.
Level 4 vehicles can operate in self-driving mode. But until legislation and infrastructure evolves, they can only do so within a limited area (usually an urban environment where top speeds reach an average of 30mph). This is known as geofencing. As such, most Level 4 vehicles in existence are geared toward ridesharing. For example:
NAVYA, a French company, is already building and selling Level 4 shuttles and cabs in the U.S. that run fully on electric power and can reach a top speed of 55 mph.
Alphabet's Waymo recently unveiled a Level 4 self-driving taxi service in Arizona, where they had been testing driverless cars―without a safety driver in the seat―for more than a year and over 10 million miles.
Canadian automotive supplier Magna has developed technology (MAX4) to enable Level 4 capabilities in both urban and highway environments. They are working with Lyft to supply high-tech kits that turn vehicles into self-driving cars.
Just a few months ago, Volvo and Baidu announced a strategic partnership to jointly develop Level 4 electric vehicles that will serve the robotaxi market in China.
Level 5 vehicles do not require human attention―the “dynamic driving task” is eliminated. Level 5 cars won’t even have steering wheels or acceleration/braking pedals. They will be free from geofencing, able to go anywhere and do anything that an experienced human driver can do. Fully autonomous cars are undergoing testing in several pockets of the world, but none are yet available to the general public.?
So…MATE, where’s my autonomous car?
While the future of autonomous vehicles is promising and exciting, mainstream production in the U.S. is still a few years away from anything higher than Level 2. Not because of technological capability, but because of security—or the lack thereof.
It’s fair to say that consumers won’t accept autonomous cars unless they are confident that they will be at least as safe as they would be on a commercial jet, train, or bus. That day is coming. But the automotive industry must get over a few speedbumps first.
How do autonomous cars work?
Autonomous cars rely on sensors, actuators, complex algorithms, machine learning systems, and powerful processors to execute software.
Autonomous cars create and maintain a map of their surroundings based on a variety of sensors situated in different parts of the vehicle. Radar sensors monitor the position of nearby vehicles. Video cameras detect traffic lights, read road signs, track other vehicles, and look for pedestrians. ^Lidar (light detection and ranging) sensors bounce pulses of light off the car’s surroundings to measure distances, detect road edges, and identify lane markings. Ultrasonic sensors in the wheels detect curbs and other vehicles when parking.
Sophisticated software then processes all this sensory input, plots a path, and sends instructions to the car’s actuators, which control acceleration, braking, and steering. Hard-coded rules, obstacle avoidance algorithms, predictive modeling, and object recognition help the software follow traffic rules and navigate obstacles.
领英推荐
^LiDAR is an acronym for Light Detection and Ranging. In LiDAR, laser light is sent from a source (transmitter) and reflected from objects in the scene. The reflected light is detected by the system receiver and the time of flight (TOF) is used to develop a distance map of the objects in the scene.
LiDAR is an optical technology often cited as a key method for distance sensing for autonomous vehicles. Many manufacturers are working to develop cost-effective, compact LiDAR systems. Virtually all producers pursuing autonomous driving consider LiDAR a key enabling technology, and some LiDAR systems are already available for Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS).
How does LiDAR work and how does it provide solutions?
Essentially, LiDAR is a ranging device, which measures the distance to a target. The distance is measured by sending a short laser pulse and recording the time-lapse between the outgoing light pulse and the detection of the reflected (back-scattered) light pulse.?
A LiDAR system may use a scan mirror, multiple laser beams, or other means to "scan" the object space. With the ability to provide accurate measurement of distances, LiDAR can be used to solve many different problems.
In remote sensing, LiDAR systems measure scatter, absorption, or re-emission from particles or molecules in the atmosphere. For these purposes, the systems may have specific requirements on the wavelength of the laser beams.?The concentration of a specific molecular species in the atmosphere, e.g. methane and the aerosol loading, can be measured. Rain droplets in the atmosphere can be measured to estimate the distance of a storm and the rainfall rate.
Other LiDAR systems provide profiles of three-dimensional surfaces in the object space. In these systems, the probing laser beams are not tied to specific spectral features. Instead, the wavelength of the laser beams may be chosen to ensure eye safety or avoid atmospheric spectral features. The probing beam encounters and is reflected by a "hard target" back to the LiDAR receiver.
LiDAR can also be used to determine the velocity of a target. This can be done either through the Doppler technique or by measuring the distance to a target in rapid succession. For example, atmospheric wind velocity and the velocity of an automobile can be measured by a LiDAR system.
In addition, LiDAR systems can be used to create a three-dimensional model of a dynamic scene, such as what may be encountered by an autonomous driving vehicle. This can be done in various ways, usually using a scanning technique.
What are the challenges with LiDAR?
Essentially, LiDAR is a ranging device which measures the distance to a target. The distance is measured by sending a short laser pulse and recording the time-lapse between the outgoing light pulse and detecting the reflected (back-scattered) light pulse.?
There are some well-known challenges with operational LiDAR systems. These challenges depend on the type of LiDAR system. Here are some examples::
What are the challenges with autonomous cars?
Fully autonomous (Level 5) cars are undergoing testing in several pockets of the world, but none are yet available to the general public.?We’re still years away from that. The challenges range from the technological and legislative to the environmental and philosophical. Here are just some of the unknowns.
Lidar is expensive and is still trying to strike the right balance between range and resolution. If multiple autonomous cars were to drive on the same road, would their lidar signals interfere with one another? And if multiple radio frequencies are available, will the frequency range be enough to support mass production of autonomous cars?
What happens when an autonomous car drives?in heavy precipitation? If there’s a layer of snow on the road, lane dividers disappear. How will the cameras and sensors track lane markings if the markings are obscured by water, oil, ice, or debris?
Will autonomous cars have trouble in tunnels or on bridges? How will they do in bumper-to-bumper traffic? Will autonomous cars be relegated to a specific lane? Will they be granted carpool lane access? And what about the fleet of legacy cars still sharing the roadways for the next 20 or 30 years?
The regulatory process in the U.S. has recently shifted from federal guidance to state-by-state mandates for autonomous cars. Some states have even proposed a per-mile tax on autonomous vehicles to prevent the rise of “zombie cars” driving around without passengers. Lawmakers have also written bills proposing that all autonomous cars must be zero-emission vehicles and have a panic button installed. But are the laws going to be different from state to state? Will you be able to cross state lines with an autonomous car?
Who is liable for accidents caused by an autonomous car? The manufacturer? The human passenger? The latest blueprints suggest that a fully autonomous Level 5 car will not have a dashboard or a steering wheel, so a human passenger would not even have the option to take control of the vehicle in an emergency.
Human drivers rely on subtle cues and non-verbal communication—like making eye contact with pedestrians or reading the facial expressions and body language of other drivers—to make split-second judgment calls and predict behaviors. Will autonomous cars be able to replicate this connection? Will they have the same life-saving instincts as human drivers?
What other applications are there for LiDAR?
The application areas for LiDAR are deep and varied.?In atmospheric sciences, LiDAR has been used to detect many types of atmospheric constituents. For example, it's been used to characterize aerosols in the atmosphere, investigate upper atmospheric winds and profile clouds, aid the collection of weather data, and many other applications. In astronomy, LiDAR has been used to measure distances between distant objects such as the moon and very near objects. LiDAR is a crucial device for improving the measurement of the distance to the moon up to millimetre precision. LIDAR has also been used to create guide stars for astronomy applications.?
Furthermore, topographic LiDAR uses a near-infrared laser to map the land and buildings, and bathymetric LiDAR uses water-penetrating green light to map seafloor and riverbed. In agriculture, LiDAR can map topology and crop growth, providing information on fertilizer needs and irrigation requirements. Finally, LiDAR has been used in archaeology to map ancient transportation systems under the thick forest canopy.?
Today, LiDAR is frequently used to create a three-dimensional model of the world around them LiDAR sensor. Autonomous navigation is one application that uses the point cloud created by a LiDAR system. Miniature LiDAR systems can even be found in devices as small as mobile phones.
How does LiDAR play out in a real-world situation?
One fascinating application for LiDAR is situational awareness for things like autonomous navigation. The situational awareness system for any moving vehicle needs to be aware of both stationary and moving objects around it. For example, radar has been used for a long time in detecting aircraft. LiDAR has been found very helpful for terrestrial vehicles because it can ascertain the distance to objects and is very precise in terms of directionality. The probing beams can be directed to precise angles and scanned quickly to create the point cloud for the three-dimensional model. The ability to scan quickly is key for this application since the situation surrounding the vehicle is highly dynamic.?
What software is needed for LiDAR devices?
Software is key to every aspect of LiDAR system creation and operation. There are multiple software needs for the design of LiDAR systems. The system engineer needs a radiometric model to predict the signal-to-noise ratio of the return beam. The optical engineer needs software to create the optical design. The electronics engineer needs an electronics model to create the electrical design. The mechanical engineer needs a CAD package to accomplish the system layout. Structural and thermal modelling software may also be needed. The operation of LiDAR systems requires control software and reconstruction software that converts the point cloud to a three-dimensional model.
Synopsys offers several optical and photonic tools to support LiDAR system and components design:
What are the benefits of autonomous cars?
The scenarios for convenience and quality-of-life improvements are limitless. The elderly and the physically disabled would have independence. If your kids were at summer camp and forgot their bathing suits and toothbrushes, the car could bring them the missing items. You could even send your dog to a veterinary appointment.
But the real promise of autonomous cars is the potential for dramatically lowering CO2?emissions. In a recent study, experts identified three trends that, if adopted concurrently, would unleash the full potential of autonomous cars: vehicle automation, vehicle electrification, and ridesharing. By 2050, these “three revolutions in urban transportation” could:
Driver Monitoring System – Driver Focus?(DMS)
Known as a driver monitoring system (DMS), or more generally as driver-alert or driver-fatigue alert, this involves a driver-facing camera mounted somewhere in front of the driver, usually within the upper dashboard or the interior rear-vision mirror housing.
Using infrared light-emitting diodes (LEDs), it constantly scans the driver’s face at all times day or night, (even those who wear glasses), to ensure their eyes are always looking forward to the road ahead and not down at a phone, at passengers or out the side window. Likewise, it can ascertain drowsiness associated with fatigue – a common cause of crashes.
It builds on the existing lane-keeping assistance technology that’s been around since the late-2000s, where sensors such as radar and cameras monitor lane markings on the road and the car’s position within them (or not).
The DMS constantly assesses the driver’s face and reacts almost instantly when it detects an issue by sounding an audible alarm, flashing up an alert warning within the instrumentation, vibrating the seat and/or even spraying a harmless mist into the driver’s face, in some regions where legal.
All driver warnings can be adjusted for severity, and some – like the last two – can be switched off.
It isn’t just obvious head-turning distraction either. If the driver’s eyes stray, squint or narrow for a prolonged period (signifying reduced vision due to excessive sunlight, for example), don’t blink as often (which suggests distraction or absent mindedness) or close, even for a moment longer than usual, the DMS alerts go off.
The DMS also knows if the driver’s head starts to tilt at an odd angle suggesting drowsiness or sleep. The alarm is designed to wake them up or alert fellow occupants to wake the driver up.
This is life-saving technology that will be made mandatory in vehicles sold in the European Union from 2024.
DMS keeps a watchful eye over your gaze and your safety, by monitoring to see if your head is turned away from the road ahead. If the system detects that the driver is not looking at the road ahead, a buzzer and display warning will remind you to bring your focus back to the front, unless the turning signals indicate you are changing direction. When EyeSight?spots a vehicle in front of you, the distraction warning is made sooner to give you more time to react if necessary.
Driving when tired is a bad idea for anyone and sometimes you can be more sleepy than you realise. DMS tracks the driver’s eye activity to calculate two stages of tiredness - drowsy and extremely drowsy. If the driver is recognised as being extremely drowsy or dozing off, a visual and audible warning will alert them. If the vehicle is fitted with a factory fit Satellite Navigation system, the intelligent DMS will mute the audio, so the alert is always clearly heard.
When a registered driver gets behind the wheel and shuts the door, their face unlocks a range of pre-programmed features to make their trip comfortable. The Multi-Function Display (MFD) beams a welcome message and the seat and door mirrors slide into your preferred position. The settings you enjoyed on your last drive will be restored, from the climate control to MFD and MID content – including driver fuel consumption results. Driver preference set up is easy using the MFD via the info switch on the steering wheel.
Road safety is in the hands of the driver, so keeping tabs on their state of alertness is paramount. The DMS will sound an alarm to tell both the driver, and any passengers, when it detects that the driver’s gaze is wandering or their eyes are displaying signs of drowsiness.
Up to five drivers can jump into the driver’s seat, knowing that the DMS has a record of their cabin environment preferences. Once the camera recognises the driver’s face, a range of customised settings take over to adjust the drivers seat position and external mirror positions (models with power drivers seat), and to restore the last used climate control settings, instrument display and Multi-Function Display settings.
Detecting a medical emergency
In situations where a driver is suddenly incapacitated, such as an event like a heart attack or stroke, some advanced DMS systems can sense this and automatically activate other semi-autonomous safety systems.
Here’s a typical scenario.
At 110km/h, the driver loses consciousness. The DMS senses this immediately and starts slowing the car down gradually, switching an indicator on to merge left, alerting surrounding traffic. The lane-keeping system then steers the car, when safe, to the left as the adaptive cruise control slowly reduces the car’s speed, and brings it to a stop.
Next, the DMS will automatically send a message to emergency services to attend the incident, while also sending out GPS co-ordinates.
As we move closer to self-driving cars, such systems are essential for higher-level autonomous driving situations, where the technology requires the driver to retake control after a period of the car doing all the driving. DMS needs to be fully functioning, ready and waiting, should the driver need to suddenly take control.
Personalised experiences for each driver
Driver monitoring systems are constantly evolving, to the point where they can now also recognise each pre-assigned driver and alert the car’s systems to adjust to each individual’s driving preferences.
For example, where a vehicle is driven regularly by more than one person, one of them may have the seat, steering wheel position, instrumentation, climate control and audio system set to suit them. When they get behind the wheel, the system will detect who they are and adjust everything to suit. The presence of another driver will trigger a different set of in-car adjustments according to their preferences.
Furthermore, if there are younger drivers involved, the DMS can be set to pre-determined speed limits and audio volume to help reduce driver distraction, and even bar phone messages until the car is parked. Similar tech has been around for more than a decade now in models such as those equipped with Ford’s Smart Key, but now with DMS, no special key fob is required. However, some of these functions can be overridden.
While to some, the notion of a car monitoring your eyes and predicting your behaviour may feel like crossing a line, the lifesaving advantages of driver and other in-car monitoring systems are undeniable.
With DMS becoming mandatory in the EU from 2024, our cars will continue to include technology capable of correcting our lapses of concentration in increasingly sophisticated ways.
RADAR
RADAR is an acronym for Radio Detection and Ranging technology, which is a device that uses radio waves for object-detection within a certain range. When the transmitted waves intercept with an object along its propagation path, they are reflected by its surface where the RADAR antenna collects the backscattered signal (echo) within its field of view (FOV). The round-trip delay time, together with the known velocity of radio waves, provides a precise determination of the object’s distance and velocity from the RADAR system. The RADAR range equation that relates the received echo power (Pr) to the distance of an object R meters away is shown in Equation?
Pr(R) =Pt*G^2*λ^2*σ*L/ (4π)^3*R^4
where Pt is the transmitted power, G is the gain, λ is the wavelength, σ is the cross section of the target, and L represents all the losses lumped together, including multipath, atmospheric, and environmental losses.
The RADAR systems for AVs operate at 24, 74, 77, and 79 GHz (millimeter wave (MMW)), which are separated out to work for short-range, medium-range, and long-range RADAR (SRR, MRR, and LRR, respectively). An LRR can be implemented to detect far targets or objects in front of the ego car, and MRR and SRR, on the other hand, are used for parking assistance or side view detection. Among a plethora of RADAR technologies available nowadays, linear Frequency-modulated continuous-wave (L-FMCW) RADARs are commonly used in AVs due to their simplicity.?
Ultrasonic Sensors
Ultrasonic sensors are suitable for many detection tasks in industrial applications. They have the capability to detect objects that are solid, liquid, granular, or in powder form. Ultrasonic sensors rely on sonic transducers to transmit sonic waves in the range of 40 kHz to 70 kHz for automotive applications. This frequency range is beyond the audible range for humans, which makes it safe for human ears. This is an important factor given that a cars’ parking system can generate more than 100 dB of sound pressure to assure clear reception, which is equivalent to the audible sound pressure from a jet engine.
Most ultrasonic sensors are based on the principle of measuring the ToF of sonic waves between transmission and reception. This measured ToF is then used to calculate the distance (d) to an object or a reflector within the measuring range, as shown in Equation
d = Speed of Sonic Wave ×ToF / 2
Sonic waves travel in air at ～340 m/s and are a function of air temperature, pressure, and humidity (for each degree Celsius, the speed of sound increases by 0.6 m/s). The time it takes a sonic wave to travel 1 m is approximately 3 × 10?3 s, as opposed to 3.3 × 10?9 s for light and radio waves. These several orders of magnitude differences allow the use of low speed signal processing in ultrasonic systems. However, pressure based atmospheric conditions can debilitate the overall performance of ultrasonic sensors, which promotes the use of SRRs and other technologies instead. Figure 8 demonstrates the application of ultrasonic sensors in vehicles.
SUMMARY:
Despite the ongoing advancements in automobile technology, one major challenge that has to be overcome is driving safely in severe weather. Driving under less-than-ideal circumstances reduces on-road visibility and impairs the functioning of AV sensors, rendering them vulnerable to possible accidents.
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