Restoring Nature’s Green and Blue Lungs
Earth is approaching environmental thresholds that, if crossed, will create serious disruptions to our ecosystems, economies, climate and society. ?There has never been a more urgent need to restore ecosystems - terrestrial and marine - than now.
In this decisive decade, the challenge is to scale up the quantity and quality of projects, and redirect greater finance to nature, for as much impact as possible.
This post is another longer than usual one!, so I shall begin with a list of contents. I hope readers find it interesting and find some inspiration for future action.
A Global Call for Ecosystem Restoration
Earth is approaching environmental thresholds that, if crossed, will create serious disruptions to our ecosystems, economies and society. To avoid the devastating effects of climate change and biodiversity loss, the imperative is to protect and restore native ecosystems. International treaties, pledges and organizations all support forest restoration as a primary method for mitigation.
There has never been a more urgent need to restore ecosystems than now. The challenge is to scale up the quantity and quality of projects now, to have as much impact as possible in the next decade.
Restoration of terrestrial and marine ecosystems offers a two-fold natural solution
The healthier our ecosystems are, the healthier the planet and those who live on it.
This post explores Large Scale Restoration and Conservation potential and the Carbon Budget, and a selection of the restoration initiatives taking place across the globe, involving both green carbon and blue carbon.
Scaling Nature Finance - The Decisive Decade
The UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021-2030) sets the scene – with its aims to prevent, halt and reverse the degradation of ecosystems on every continent and in every ocean.
The recent report "Scaling Nature Finance now" calls for a scale-up of global investment into Nature-based Solutions of almost triple by 2030 - from $200 billion to $542 billion annually. Home to the majority of the world’s population, Emerging markets / developing countries offer the most numerous and substantive Nature-based investment opportunities. Yet in global terms, they receive just 20% of nature finance, often with higher levels of debt obligation and costs of funding.
This month sees the 16th Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD COP16), to take place this month in Cali, Colombia, from October 21 to November 1. Alongside the customary release and announcement of new reports and initiatives, CBD COP16 provides a perfect opportunity to enhance courses for action and financing expectations for COP29 this November.
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Ecosystem Restoration
Drought and desertification threaten ecosystems worldwide, including freshwater ecosystems and soil, the connective tissue that makes all life on Earth possible. Over 40% of the world's land is degraded, affecting half the global population. Protecting and restoring tropical forests, mangroves and degraded lands on a huge scale can provide the mitigation action needed.
Please also refer to an earlier post on the subject here which contains a compilation of instructive and inspiring videos in the Appendix - on ecosystem restoration, agroforestry, permaculture, water capture and harvesting, saline agroecologies and so on. ?
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Improving Carbon Uptake
Green carbon is the carbon stored by terrestrial ecosystems, including forests and other land-based vegetation. These ecosystems absorb and store carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, playing a crucial role in mitigating climate change. In particular, forest conservation and restoration projects are one of the most critical strategies for combating climate change, restoring ecosystems and the hydrological cycle. The restoration of forests may include reforestation (tree planting in areas previously forested or degraded) and afforestation (tree planting in areas that have not had recent tree cover).
Blue carbon is the carbon stored by coastal and marine ecosystems, such as mangroves, seagrasses and salt marshes. These ecosystems provide many benefits for coastal and wetland communities and protection against erosion and storm damage for the wider population. The carbon density of healthy blue carbon ecosystems is far greater than green carbon ecosystems, giving blue carbon projects an important role in addressing climate, biodiversity and development crises on a global scale.
Conservation and Restoration of Green and Blue Carbon
Conservation of existing ecosystems is absolutely critical. While restoration is certainly needed, it will rarely fully restore the original biodiversity and integrity of degraded systems. Preventing nature-loss is as important as removing GHGs and restoring ecosystems.
“The main goal of restoration should be protecting biodiversity, with any carbon absorption a happy side-effect”
Bonnie Waring, Imperial College London
While market demand often prefers restoration, stakeholders should also prioritize conservation. Indeed, combining conservation and restoration increases the number of locations for potential projects, and the greater carbon benefit from conservation may subsidize restoration costs.
Conservation is less expensive and delivers a greater quantity of credits because of the high amount of carbon stocks being protected. But unlike forestry where most threats relate to logging, threats to blue carbon systems are more varied. For example, cutting for charcoal production may threaten one location, while sedimentation changes related to water diversion for agriculture may threaten another.
Restoration involves longer time horizons for removing carbon from the atmosphere. It may take years for the ecosystem to re-establish itself and become mature enough to capture soil carbon. Similarly in marshes and sea grasses, the grass itself is quickly restored but lost soil carbon regenerates more slowly. Restoration projects are often more costly as interventions may be required, such as planting and hydrological engineering. ?
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1.????? Improving Green Carbon Uptake
Forest Restoration and Sustainable Land Management (SLM)
As we confront the growing threats of deforestation, land degradation and climate change, investing in conservation and forest restoration efforts is absolutely essential. This will boost the overall land carbon sink at a time when it is most needed.
Climate change is a massive threat to society and must be addressed with emissions cuts. Biodiversity loss is an equally big threat to humanity,”
Thomas Crowther, ETH Zürich
Reforestation and conservation play equally important roles in mitigating climate change and preserving biodiversity. Forests act as carbon sinks, absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and storing it in trees, soils, and vegetation. By restoring forests and expanding forest cover, we also restore the hydrological cycle which benefits all manner of ecosystem elements, including soil moisture, precipitation and habitat protection. ?
Reforestation and conservation enhance ecosystem services such as soil stabilization, water regulation, and habitat provision, supporting biodiversity conservation and promoting sustainable land management practices. Reforestation of degraded land can also regenerate the bioprecipitation process, where biological particles act as catalysts for cloud formation and precipitation, boosting rainfall and soil moisture content in areas that have become more arid.
“We must attribute to heat the great movements that we observe all about us on the Earth. Heat is the cause of currents in the atmosphere, of the rising motion of clouds, of the falling of rain and of other atmospheric phenomena”
Sadi Carnot, 1824, Treatise on Thermodynamics
In complex systems terms, the global climate system is a nonlinear fluid system, with energy transport processes that move energy / heat through radiation, conduction and convection processes. Ecosystems regeneration effectively lowers the entropy or disorder, of the surrounding system. It takes heat out of the system, that would otherwise add to system disorder / randomness. This occurs through three main endothermic mechanisms:
These last two often being considered together as evapotranspiration - both liquid-to-gas processes using heat from the surroundings and thus cooling the air.
These processes can also run in the other direction, with higher temperatures and lower precipitations triggering stress reactions in plants, leading to raised canopy temperatures in a feedback loop.
“The general struggle for existence of living beings is therefore not a fight for energy, which is plentiful in the form of heat, unfortunately untransformably, in every body. Rather, it is a struggle for entropy that becomes available through the flow of energy from the hot Sun to the cold Earth. To make the fullest use of this energy, the plants spread out the immeasurable areas of their leaves and harness the Sun's energy by a process as yet unexplored, before it sinks down to the temperature level of our Earth, to drive chemical syntheses of which one has no inkling as yet in our laboratories.”
Ludwig Boltzmann, 1886, Lecture on Thermodynamics (translated here)
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Ecosystems and Good SLM Practices
Reforestation and Afforestation Projects
Afforestation and reforestation (A/R) are both processes aimed at increasing forested areas. Reforestation involves replanting trees in areas where forests have been depleted, while afforestation refers to planting trees in regions that have not recently been forested.
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A/R Best practices
?A 2021 review led by Kew scientists and Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) also proposed ‘ten golden rules for reforestation’ to boost benefits for people and the planet.
By combining ecological restoration with economic empowerment and adhering to high environmental standards, A/R projects can deliver lasting benefits for both nature and local communities. With the right practices and partnerships, A/R can be a powerful tool for sustainable development. The economic value to restoration is an important consideration in any nature finance discussions. Restoring native ecosystems on degraded land can recharge local ecosystem services, restore biodiversity and sustain local bio-economies, generating economic returns for landowners and communities.
2.????? Improving Blue Carbon Uptake
Mangroves, Marshes, Ocean Forests and Meadows
The oceans take up 71% of the planet’s surface, and 97% of the planet’s water. Mangroves make up one part of the “big three” of marine ecosystems, together with salt marshes and seagrass. They absorb carbon dioxide from the air and store it in their web of roots and branches.?
Source: Moffett et al. 2015
Mangroves, tidal marshes, seagrass, seaweed as well as other coastal and marine ecosystems capture and store large amounts of organic carbon – estimated by the UN to reach over 4 billion tons. In general, mangrove swamps grow in the warm, humid environments of low latitudes. Seagrasses have adapted to grow in warm, temperate and cold climates. Herbaceous intertidal marshes develop inland of tropical mangroves and along protected shorelines in temperate to cold regions (middle to high latitudes). Salt marshes typically develop within tide-dominated and wave-dominated estuaries (lagoons and coastal embayments). Brackish- and fresh-water marshes occur where continental runoff maintains a protected shoreline at low salinity, such as within coastal deltas and large riverine estuaries.
?Such systems are subject to dynamic change. Changes in river sediment can lead to changes in delta structure, which can result in shifts between mangrove ecosystems, mudflats and tidal marshes. Similarly as sea levels rise, the extent of saltwater exposure increases, facilitating the landward movement of mangroves and other more salt-tolerant wetland species.
Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees, flourishing where freshwater intermingles with seawater and sediment. With over 80 different species, mangroves foster a marine biodiversity while shielding and stabilizing the shore. Whilst mangroves make up c.1% of forested land globally, they can store up to 4 times more carbon than other tropical forests, locking it in the soil deep below their roots. Such ecosystems, if protected and restored, have a higher carbon density, assisting wetland-rich countries to meet their national climate goals. About 75% of the world’s mangroves are concentrated in just 15 countries.
Investment interest for blue carbon projects is high. For example, Indonesia, which has the world’s largest area of mangrove forest. ”Blue carbon” ecosystems serve as barriers against storm surges, flooding, and erosion. They provide critical habitats, clean our air and water, and regulate our climate by sequestering and storing carbon. Coastal blue carbon ecosystem services are valued at over $190 billion p.a. and are estimated to reduce costs associated with impacts such as flooding by over $65 billion annually? .
Taken as a linear coverage of?14.93%?of the?2.14 million km?of global coastline, mangrove coastline coverage in 2020 was 319,338.96 km, with the area of mangrove habitat calculated as?147,359?km2.
Of the 1,100,000 hectares of mangroves that have been lost since 1996, around 818,300 ha of mangroves are considered “restorable” while other areas are considered irretrievably lost to urbanization, erosion, or other causes. While there have been many successful mangrove restoration efforts, some regions still see failure rates of up to 80% due to science-based methods not being followed – poor project planning, lack of local engagement, planting in unsuitable areas, or planting without also addressing hydrology, nutrient and sedimentation requirements.
Mangroves are taxonomically diverse, as a result of convergent evolution in several plant families. They occur worldwide in the tropics and subtropics and even some temperate coastal areas, mainly between latitudes 30° N and 30° S, with the greatest mangrove area within 5° of the equator.
Mangroves are among the world’s most productive ecosystems. Their high primary production sustains a rich food web – from detritus decomposers, to fish, mammals and birds. They support biodiversity conservation by serving as habitats, spawning grounds, nurseries and sources of nutrients. They are home to hundreds of threatened species. They are 5 times more cost effective than human-made infrastructure designed to protect coastal communities, reducing wave heights by up to 60% and tsunami flood depth by 30%.
Critically, less than 7% of mangroves are protected, with land-use change for aquaculture and coastal development putting further pressure on those that remain. Seagrass meadows are similarly sensitive to disturbance and can be degraded by water pollution, while tidal marshes continue to be drained for development. The loss of blue carbon stores worsens climate impacts and hinders adaptation from e.g. increasing exposure to storm surges, and sea level rise after the felling of mangrove forests.
The rate of mangrove loss has slowed globally in recent decades due to greater awareness of their many benefits, and as more mangrove areas are placed under protection. Between 2000 and 2020, a net 284,000 hectares of mangroves were lost. This highlights the dynamic nature of mangroves, with coastal ecosystems transitioning from one form to another as environmental conditions change.
De-oxygenation of the oceans is another emerging threat, adversely affecting marine biodiversity and food webs, and the food security and livelihoods of affected communities. A 2018 study (Breitberg et al.) found that oxygen minimum zones in the open ocean have expanded by several million square kilometers, with hundreds of coastal site oxygen concentrations now low enough to limit animal populations and alter the cycling of important nutrients. The volume of low-oxygen areas is projected to grow c. 7% by 2100 under a scenario of continued emissions.
Coastal and marine Nature-based Solutions (NbS) include the protection and restoration of mangroves, seagrasses and tidal salt marshes. Recent estimates demonstrate that preventing just 1% of mangrove loss globally results in 0.2 Gt of carbon stored. Restoration of mangrove losses since 1996 could safeguard the carbon equivalent of 1.27 Gt CO2, in soil and above ground biomass.
Best practices to restore mangroves
The most successful way to restore mangroves is to create the right biophysical and socioeconomic conditions.
Several countries, including the UAE, Indonesia, India and China have pledged to safeguard and restore mangroves. Some multinational companies are also investing in the ‘blue carbon’ mitigation value of mangrove restoration.
Launched at COP27 at the We Mean Business Coalition Pavillion (by WEF Friends of Ocean Action, ORRAA, Salesforce, Nature Conservancy, Conservation International and Meridian Institute) the High-Quality Blue Carbon Principles and Guidance set out detailed guidance and the following five principles for the development and deployment of high-quality blue carbon projects and credits.
Safeguard Nature - Blue carbon projects provide unique opportunities to preserve and enhance ecosystem resilience.
Empower People - Most blue carbon projects take place where people live and work. Blue carbon practitioners must implement social safeguards to protect and enhance community member rights, knowledge, and leadership and foster equitable access to the global carbon market.
Employ the best information, interventions and carbon accounting practices - The integrity of the VCM hinges, in part, on the quality of information used to design projects and communicate the resulting carbon value of the credits generated.
Operate Locally and Contextually - Blue carbon ecosystems are incredibly heterogeneous with respect to their role in local customs; gender and power dynamics; resource use, management, and ownership regimes; and social, policy, and governance structures.
Mobilize High-integrity Capital - We cannot achieve the best outcomes for people, nature, and climate without high-integrity financial flows.
The potential for mangrove restoration has never been higher and it is imperative that we get this right. To this end, the Global Mangrove Alliance (GMA) and the Blue Carbon Initiative (BCI), are initiating and hosting the Global Mangrove Restoration Guidelines, and are bringing together NGOs, governments, scientists, industry, local communities, and funders towards a common goal of conserving and restoring mangrove ecosystems in a science-based, equitable manner.
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3.????? Carbon Uptake in Peatlands
Of all the ecosystems, peatlands deserve a special mention. They are often overlooked but have great importance for carbon storage. Peatlands cover about 3% of the world’s land, but account for nearly half the world’s wetlands. Inland wetlands include marshes, ponds, lakes, fens, rivers, floodplains and swamps. Peatlands are a type of wetland that occurs in almost every country on the globe.
Peat is non-decomposed organic matter that has built up over time, due to water preventing oxidization. Because of the organic matter that is maintained in peat, carbon is held in the ground. Peatland ecosystems play an important role in nature as they regulate climate through sequestering carbon from the atmosphere, storing it in peat sediments. They provide habitats for many plant and animal species that are unable to live in other environments.
Peatlands are part of a hydrological network that links streams, rivers, lakes, water flows, water level and water quality. They improve groundwater supply and support water resource management (IUCN 2021). Peatlands can hold as much as 20 times the carbon density of forests, and worldwide contain around 650 Gt C, or 30% of the planets’ soil carbon.
Peat-core estimates of long-term rates of net carbon accumulation in northern peatlands are typically 22.9 ± 2.0 g C m?2 yr?1, with higher rates of 24–32 g C m?2 yr?1 and up to 80 g C m?2 yr?1 over the past millennium (Gallego-Sala et al., 2018; Loisel et al., 2014).
Healthy peatlands are active - they continue to sequester more carbon, annually, than all other vegetation types combined.
However, the high rate of global peatland degradation means there is a net loss of carbon from peatlands. The principal threat to peatlands is drainage. Once water is removed, decomposition of the organic material proceeds rapidly, and carbon dioxide is released. Peat’s hydrological function of holding and regulating water from rainfall is diminished. Simultaneously, the specific biodiversity of peatland is lost. Dried-out peat then becomes vulnerable to fire, and the loss of carbon is accelerated. In 2015, peat fires in Indonesia brought this problem to the world’s attention.
Small-scale peatland degradation continues worldwide. Examples include small-scale reclamation for farming, overgrazing, harvesting for compost sold in garden centres, and peat cut for fuel.
While peatlands are found globally, there is a concentration in the far north, throughout the boreal and arctic zones. This has implications with climate change bringing warmer weather, leading to the strong probability that wild peat fires will increase in these areas – with large GHG emissions and further peatland degradation.
SLM can contribute to peatland management, with two main routes:
The LIFE Peat Restore project is a peatlands restoration project, involving rewetting of peatlands across 5 countries - Germany, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia. The project covers 5300 hectares and through successful restoration, has demonstrated the important contribution of peatlands to climate change mitigation in the Baltic lowlands.
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4.????? Carbon Uptake in Grasslands
Grasses could be another complementary solution to reforestation. In many parts of the world, far more carbon is held in the soil than in above-ground biomass. Grasslands cover about 40% of the global land surface and store about 34% of global terrestrial carbon and depending on soil type and climate, can be an important soil carbon sink.
Currently, grasslands are undergoing land-use conversion and severe degradation - about 50% of global grassland area has been degraded. ?Around 69% of the world’s agricultural area is made up of grasslands. They emit methane (CH4) from grazing livestock and nitrous oxide (N2O) from soils and animal manure. Poor management of grasslands for agriculture can degrade these ecosystems.
Degraded grasslands are usually characterized by reduced vegetation, reduced soil organic matter, soil erosion, decreased productivity and/or loss of biodiversity. Over-grazing is a major driver of grassland degradation, which reduces productivity and increases GHG emissions. Optimizing grazing intensity (e.g. rotational grazing) has been shown to be to effective, especially in Latin America, Africa and Asia.
Restorative interventions include activities that aim to recover native grass cover through revegetation, natural regeneration, and assisted natural regeneration. These interventions aim to enhance grasslands as land carbon sinks and restore the wider ecosystem functions.
Despite their importance and climate mitigation potential, grassland ecosystems are often marginalized in national climate policies and strategies. Yet grasses often use less water to sequester soil carbon than trees do. They can also do so faster and more effectively at higher temperatures. Grasses are also less vulnerable to destruction by fire, drought and disease. Grasslands, especially waterlogged grasslands, can be shown to hold much more carbon than tree-covered landscapes if subsurface carbon is included in estimates.
Video – We don’t have time???
The Global Carbon Budget
As with the Earths Energy Imbalance, the Earth’s Carbon Budget is also out of balance. The five major components of the global carbon budget are:
The resulting Carbon Budget Imbalance is the difference between the estimated total emission sources (1+2) and the estimated total emission sinks (3+4+5). As one might expect, these estimates are a work in progress but steadily improving.
The global carbon budget for recent years and historical periods is shown in the table below.
Over the 1850–2022 period, one can see that the cumulative land sink (225 Gt C) is almost equal to the cumulative land-use emissions (220 Gt C), making global land nearly neutral.
Land can quickly become a greater net sink, through the combination of increased Reforestation/Afforestation and reduced Deforestation in future years.
Total emission sinks do not match Total emission sources from year to year i.e. the residual annual Imbalance varies. The global terrestrial CO2 sink (SLAND) is a residual estimated by the difference of the other terms.
Source: Earth System Science Data
Global carbon budget increases since 1960
The evolution of the airborne fraction over the last 60 years shows no significant trend, remaining at around 44 %, but with a large variability. The observed stability indicates that between them, the ocean and land CO2 sinks have been removing on average about 56% of the anthropogenic emissions since 1960.
Components of the global carbon budget since 1850
The Global Carbon Cycle
The annual changes in the Carbon Budget give us a good idea of how the land and ocean sinks take up emissions (56% on average) but are unable to absorb the full amount. The balancing item (44%) is carbon uptake by the atmosphere, resulting in a global carbon imbalance which also affects the global energy imbalance.
But compared to the global carbon cycle (the carbon balance sheet of the planet), the annual carbon budget (11 Gt C) is small. Even the total anthropogenic emissions since 1750 (730 GtC) are smaller than the estimated carbon stored in permafrost (1400 GtC), soils (1700 GtC), surface sediments (1750 GtC) and dissolved inorganic carbon (37,000 GtC).
This helps to put things into a wider perspective - there are colossal stores of carbon on the planet. What would happen if these more permanent stores of carbon were not so permanent anymore? If we continue on the current pathway, the current and future generations will unfortunately get to find out.
The Remaining Carbon Budget and Net Zero Pathways
Total anthropogenic emissions are estimated at 11.1 GtC yr-1 (40.9 GtCO2 yr-1) for 2023.
Based on this, the remaining carbon budgets (from Jan 2024, based on an average of IPCC AR6 and Forster et al. 2023) for a 50% likelihood of limiting warming to a specific threshold, are as follows:
For 1.5 C:???? 75 Gt C (275 GtCO2), i.e. about 7 years (to end 2030)
For 1.7 C:??? 175 Gt C (625 GtCO2), i.e. about 15 years (to end 2038)
For 2.0 C:??? 315 Gt C (1150 GtCO2), i.e. about 28 years (to end 2051)
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Sensitivity Analysis for Net Zero
Net Zero linearly by 2050 - Reaching net-zero by 2050 linearly, means reducing total anthropogenic CO2 emissions budget (TEB) by 0.43 Gt C each year on average. This would be comparable to achieving the decrease in fossil emissions (EFOS) observed in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic, but every year until 2050. Even this would still lead to cumulative 2024–2050 emissions of 150 Gt C, i.e. the remaining carbon budget for 1.7 C.
Net Zero linearly by 2060 - Reaching net-zero by 2060 linearly, means reducing the TEB by 0.31 Gt C each year on average. Given the current lack of progress in emissions reduction, this might be a more realistic position i.e. a slower start, followed by catch up. Such a pathway would lead to cumulative 2024–2060 emissions of 205 Gt C, i.e. the remaining carbon budget for 1.8 C.
Net Zero linearly by 2070 - Reaching net-zero by 2070 linearly, means reducing the TEB by 0.24 Gt C each year on average. Given the current lack of progress in emissions reduction, this might be a more realistic / pessimistic position. Such a pathway would lead to cumulative 2024–2070 emissions of 261 Gt C, i.e. the remaining carbon budget for 1.9 C.
Net Zero, starting in 2035 - linearly by 2070 - Reaching net-zero by 2070 linearly, but starting in 2035, might be more realistic based on current trends. This would mean reducing the TEB by 0.31 Gt C each year on average from 2035 onwards. Such a pathway would lead to 2024–2070 cumulative emissions of 316 Gt C, i.e. the remaining carbon budget for 2.0 C.
As above, all of these Net Zero pathways assume only 50% likelihood of limiting warming to the threshold stated.
Given that we are increasingly looking at a 2+ C world, and possibly even higher as we are dealing with probabilities and tipping points, there is a need for immediate action – restore terrestrial and marine ecosystems and phase out fossil fuels.
Urgently restoring the world’s trees and marine /wetland ecosystems can provide us with an additional cushion against the carbon budget, by improving the overall carbon sink and reducing land-use emissions, amongst other benefits.
Finance for Nature; Pledges and Initiatives
?The challenge is to scale up the quantity and quality of restoration and conservation projects now, to have as much impact as possible in this decisive decade. This will require a continuation and indeed acceleration of the current levels of progress, in terms of sustainable ecosystems restoration, financial pledges and tree planting pledges.?
Government Pledges
Governments alone have pledged to plant over 1 billion hectares of trees over the long term. With a similar land area potentially available from a reformation of the agricultural sector, and large-scale forest restoration, this might well enable us to reach a 2-3 trillion trees target. ?
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?The 2022 Land Gap Report and the 2023 Update make the following key points:
In particular, the Canadian Government's 2 Billion Trees Program aims to plant 2 billion trees over 10 years. This program involves funding of up to $3.2 billion over 10 years, to be invested in tree planting efforts across provinces, territories, non-profits, businesses, and indigenous governments and organisations. Canada, home to 9% of the world’s forests, has the largest terrestrial carbon storage in its northern boreal forests, which hold nearly twice as much carbon density as tropical forests. ?
The Ten Billion Trees Tsunami Project (aka Plant-for-Pakistan): was launched in Sep 2018 with the aim of planting ten billion trees across the country to combat deforestation, mitigate climate change, and restore ecosystems. It is a follow-up project to the successful Billion Trees Project launched in 2014 - and completed ahead of schedule in Aug 2017. Through a combination of afforestation, reforestation, and conservation efforts, the projects had planted over 1.5 billion trees by 2020, with a goal of 3.2 billion trees by 2023. Direct planting accounts for about 40% of the program’s new trees, with 21 species, from the chir pine to the deodar — the national tree. The other 60% come from assisted regeneration, with communities paid to protect existing forests. The Project has not only restored degraded forests but also created thousands of jobs and contributed to biodiversity conservation and carbon storage.
European Green Deal - Around 35% of Europe is covered by forests, housing 25% of the world’s forests. Europe faces forest vulnerability due to a lack of diversity, with less than 3% being pristine or old growth. Making for a great opportunity to enhance resilience and adaptation to climate change. As part of the European Green Deal, the EU has committed to planting 3 billion trees and enacted the Nature Restoration Law in June 2024, targeting the restoration of at least 20% of its land and sea areas by 2030.
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The Top 5 Forested Countries are also leaders in Restoration
China - China is the world leader in reforestation, with an estimated 137,000 km2 of forest regrown between 2000 and 2020. The Chinese government has implemented a range of strategies including:
India - India has made significant progress, with an estimated 31,000 km2 of forest regrown between 2000 and 2020. Measures taken by the Indian government include:
United States - The U.S. has regrown an estimated 26,000 km2 of forest between 2000 and 2020. Strategies implemented include:
Russia - Russia has regrown an estimated 24,000 km2 of forest between 2000 and 2020. Strategies implemented include:
Brazil - Brazil has regrown an estimated 22,000 km2 between 2000 and 2020. Strategies implemented include:
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Reforestation Programs and Initiatives
Reforestation programs and initiatives around the world are making significant strides in revitalizing ecosystems, improving livelihoods, and building resilience to environmental challenges. They are also being scaled up, with three “trillion-trees” initiatives announced in recent years. Such programs have improved over time and achieved some remarkable success in restoring degraded landscapes and ecosystems. The programs have gathered momentum so quickly, that there has been a global seed shortage.
Scientists and trillion-tree campaigners are united in saying that protecting existing forests is the most important nature-based solution for limiting the global temperature rise to 1.5C. But sensitively restoring ecosystems in appropriate places is also crucial for slowing biodiversity collapse, and must be done with urgency.
Here are some notable examples:
1.??The Great Green Wall Initiative: The Great Green Wall Initiative (GGW) ? is a project launched in 2007, in which 26 countries are constructing a cross-continental connection of trees and plants. It is one of the biggest projects worldwide to fight climate change, with the goal of greening the Sahel with vegetation, farmland and trees - combating desertification, land degradation and climate change. This enormous project has expanded much beyond its initial conception of a band of trees stretching across 8,000 km. Based on the most current assessment, the GGW has successfully repaired 18 million hectares of land, providing millions of people with healthy food and employment - a model of sustainable and bio-diverse managed land. The GGW plans to provide 10 million jobs by 2030 and restore 100 million hectares of degraded land, with potential carbon storage of 313 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent. Despite challenges, such as drought and resource constraints, the Great Green Wall has made significant progress in restoring landscapes and empowering communities.
2.??The Bonn Challenge: The German Government’s Bonn Challenge is a global initiative launched in 2011 to restore 150 million hectares of degraded and deforested land by 2020 and 350 million hectares by 2030. Led by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and supported by governments, organizations, and private sector partners, the Bonn Challenge aims to mobilize political will, financial resources, and technical expertise for large-scale forest landscape restoration. To date, over 170 million hectares of commitments have been made, demonstrating the potential of collaborative efforts in achieving global reforestation goals.
3.???The?Trillion Tree Campaign -? Felix Finkbeiner, a German schoolboy credited with the original 'plant a million trees' idea, has since seen his original goal balloon to a trillion trees, through his company Plant-for-the-Planet. Restoration projects have been conducted in Brazil (2012), Congo (2012), Costa Rica (2009), Ecuador (2008), India (2014), Malaysia (2009), Namibia (2008) and Philippines (2014) – where some 813,143 trees (mainly mangroves) were planted. More recent and larger scale projects are in Mexico’s Yucutan (12.55 million trees planted since 2015), Andalucia, Spain (0.5 million trees planted so far), Toluca, Mexico (14.19 million trees planted since 2018) and the Northern Savannah Ecological Zone in Ghana (67,000 trees planted so far).
4.??Trillion Trees was formed in 2016 by three of the world's leading conservation organisations: BirdLife International, Wildlife Conservation Society and WWF. Uniting their expertise, data and global networks to accelerate the protection and restoration of forests. They have committed dedicated expert resources, and take lead on different specific forest conservation projects, in collaboration with local groups and communities in each location.
Trillion Trees works closely with 1t.org, the global platform for the trillion trees community hosted by the WEF. Other partners are the Aga Khan Development Network; the Coalition for Private Investment in Conservation (CPIC); the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO); The Economics of Ecosystem Restoration (TEER); the Global Returns Project and Nature4Climate.
5.??1 trillion trees?
“We have lost 3 trillion trees on our planet ….. We need to plant a trillion trees.”
Marc Benioff, Salesforce
Benioff’s vision of fighting climate change with saplings kicked off in 2020. It is now one of three “trillion-tree” campaigns launched by business leaders and charities in the past decade. These initiatives stand alongside over 100 government planting pledges, with over 100 countries pledged to spend public and private money to reverse forest loss.
1t.org aims to “mobilize, connect, and empower the global reforestation community to conserve, restore and grow a trillion trees by 2030 for people, biodiversity and planet”. It is part of the WEF’s work to accelerate nature-based solutions in support of the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021-2030), supported by funding from Marc and Lynne Benioff. 1t.org has 9 Ecosystem partners - American Forests, CIFOR, Commonland, Crowther Lab, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Salesforce, Trillion Trees, UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration Youth Task Force, and WeForest.
1t.org’s recent progress report shows a remarkable number of private sector pledges, coalitions and engaged communities:
6.??Conservation International Amazonia rainforest project:
The Amazon forests host the richest biodiversity of any terrestrial ecosystem, with 10% of all known species, 20% of all freshwater flows, and 31.5 Gt of carbon stored in its tropical forests and wetlands. Establishing a sustainable bioeconomy in the Amazon is considered crucial not only for the region but for the entire planet.
Launched in 2017 as the “largest tropical forest restoration in the world” along with the Brazilian government and several NGOs, CI pledged to plant 73 million trees across five states in the Brazilian Amazon. The initiative is targeted on the “arc of deforestation,” to restore the rapidly receding southern edge of the Brazilian Amazon before the biome hits a tipping point and changes over to savanna. Despite a goal of completing the project by end 2023, the project was less than 20% complete, slowed by the COVID-19 pandemic and the 2019-2022 Bolsonaro presidency. Fire has also played a role, destroying 2,700 ha in RESEX Rio Preto Jacundá, Rond?nia state, in 2021.
The project is employing the muvuca method, invented by the Xavante indigenous group native to Mato Grosso state. In Portuguese muvuca means “a lot of people in one small space.” Here the term refers to the seeds – with restorers planting a collection of mixed native seeds in one place and? seeing what grows. Up to 120 native plant species are used in the mix of seeds. The muvuca method is proving far cheaper than planting individual trees one at a time. CI is pursuing this method when working on private land – with a tree yield 3 times higher than initial estimates. Rather than 3 million trees growing in 1,200 hectares as expected, CI are 9.6 million trees in the same area, reducing restoration costs at a large scale. 170 native plant species are being used in the muvuca restoration, helping to ensure biodiversity as well as carbon storage.
If successful, all of the 73 million trees may do more than store carbon, increase biodiversity and help local livelihoods. The renewed forest may help buffer the Amazon from hitting its tipping point. Researchers especially fear for the SE Brazilian Amazon, where 31% of the forest has already been lost. Savannization is already taking place in both Brazil and Bolivia according to a report last year.
Despite its large size, the CI project represents a small part of Brazil’s 2016 Bonn Challenge commitment to restore 12 million hectares of forest.
“The only pathway to avoid the Amazon tipping point is through scaling up restoration interventions”
Miguel Moraes, Conservation International, Brazil office
7.??The Loess Plateau Restoration Project, China:
The Loess Plateau Restoration Project is one of the largest and most successful ecological restoration initiatives in the world, covering an area of over 35,000 square kilometers in northwestern China. Through a combination of afforestation, soil conservation, and sustainable land management /watershed rehabilitation, the project has transformed degraded land into productive and resilient ecosystems. By involving local communities in tree planting, soil conservation, and sustainable agriculture, the project has improved livelihoods, reduced poverty, and enhanced ecosystem services such as water regulation and soil fertility. Survival rates of the tree and shrub plantings have generally been high except in some drought-affected areas where replanting was necessary. Overall seedling quality was a problem in the first years of the project.
8.?Bezos Earth Fund -?In Nov 2021, Amazon founder Jeff Bezos pledged $2 billion in funding to help restore nature and transform food systems, together with $1 billion in grants with a focus on conservation. This funding will come from the $10 billion Bezos Earth Fund, as part of his commitment on fighting climate change this decade.
“Together, this $3 billion in pledges will drive a new threefold nature agenda for the Bezos Earth Fund, focused simultaneously on conservation, restoration and food transformation ….? We must conserve what we still have, we must restore what we’ve lost and we must grow what we need to live, without degrading the planet for future generations to come.”
Jeff Bezos, Amazon founder and Executive Chair, Bezos Earth Fund
9.??The Eden - For People+Planet Projects, Madagascar:
The Eden - For People+Planet Projects is a non-profit organization that works to restore forests and alleviate poverty in some of the world’s poorest communities. In Madagascar, one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots, 10% of primary forests remain intact. The organization has been instrumental in restoring degraded forests, combating deforestation, and empowering local communities. Through a model of community-based reforestation, the Eden Projects have planted millions of trees across 46 sites covering 42,800 hectares, restored vital habitats for endangered species, and provided sustainable livelihoods for thousands of people.
10.??The Miyawaki Forests, India:
Miyawaki forests, named after Japanese botanist Akira Miyawaki, are dense, native forests created through afforestation. In India, ?several initiatives have adopted the Miyawaki method to restore degraded lands, enhance biodiversity, and mitigate climate change. These small but dense forests, planted with a mix of native tree species, grow rapidly and provide valuable ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, soil stabilization, and habitat creation. By engaging local communities in tree planting and forest management, Miyawaki forests have transformed barren landscapes into thriving ecosystems, providing green spaces for urban residents and enhancing biodiversity conservation efforts.
11.?? Rio de Janeiro - Reforestation action using seeding drones, as part of the Ministry of the Environment and Climate's ReflorestaRio program. The drones, supplied by a French-Brazilian technology company, MORFO, are being used to plant seeds of native species in the Serra de Inhoaíba. The city is implementing various ecological measures, including hydration points, green corridors and prevention of expansion in at-risk areas. The Serra de Inhoaíba is essential for maintaining and increasing the city's vegetation cover, mitigating heat waves and preventing floods and landslides. Because of the region's hard-to-reach steep slopes, drone-dispersed seeds are safer and more effective than traditional planting methods. A two-person team equipped with a drone can replant a field 100 times faster than traditional methods, planting 180 seeds per minute over an area of up to 50 hectares per day. Over the past two years, MORFO has restored 600 hectares, managed 1,200 hectares and recorded 600 native species. The project involves monitoring reforested areas using up-to-date satellite and drone imagery. Since the 1980s, the ReflorestaRio programme has reforested the equivalent of 3,600 soccer fields, planting over 10 million seedlings in more than 200 communities. The program has more than 10,000 employees and volunteers, and today continues to involve around 470 volunteers. Since 2021, the program has planted over 368,000 seedlings of 168 native species, focusing on AP5 (the west zone of Rio) and other areas.
12. Albertine Rift Conservation - The Albertine Rift is one of the most biodiverse regions in Africa with mountains, deep green forests, savannahs and great lakes spanning 1,000km through six countries including the DRC, Rwanda and Uganda. The region is home to the many endangered and unique species of vertebrates. Integrating biodiversity with a large focus on agroforestry, the Albertine Rift Conservation Society?(ARCOS) focuses on securing farmers’ long-term buy-in. It recruits villagers into groups of 30. Helping them make the schemes profitable is a key focus - farmers are supported to maintain the trees long-term, through villager-managed microfinance funds. Biodiversity is supported by distributing 25 species to each project, including native, non-utilitarian trees and shrubs alongside those that provide fruits and nuts. Each family’s profits have, on average, risen from $50 a season before ARCOS, to $300 a season, with 40,000 families now involved.
Appendix 3 continues this list of programs and initiatives. Please also refer to an earlier post on the subject here which contains a compilation of instructive and inspiring videos in the Appendix - on ecosystem restoration, agroforestry, permaculture, water capture and harvesting, saline agroecologies and so on. ?
Restoring the World’s Tree Cover
The Scale of the Problem
The world’s stock of trees used to be about 6 trillion. Today, just over 3 trillion trees remain (Crowther et al. 2015), and the current run rate is that we are losing about 15 billion trees each year in net deforestation, principally to agriculture.
At around 4.05 billion hectares, the global forests now account for around 38% of habitable land area, and 25% of total land area (habitable and uninhabitable). 3.75 billion hectares (92.5%) of this is natural regenerating and primary forest, and 0.3 billion hectares (7.5%) is planted forest.
Deforestation - Agricultural expansion accounts for almost 90% of global deforestation - Cropland accounts for c.50% and livestock grazing for c.39%. Globally, small-scale farming has caused 68% of agriculture-driven deforestation, while large-scale farming caused 32%. In Africa, small-scale farming was responsible for 97%. ?These findings suggest that efforts to reduce deforestation must tackle production system weaknesses, while addressing critical needs such as food security, income and land tenure rights for local communities.
Primary Forests - There is an estimated 726 million ha of forest in protected areas worldwide. Of the six major world regions, South America has the highest share of forests in protected areas, at 31%. The area of forest in protected areas globally has increased by 191 million ha since 1990. The world still has at least 1.11 billion hectares of primary forest - forests composed of native species in which there are no clearly visible indications of human activities and the ecological processes have not been significantly disturbed. Three countries – Brazil, Canada and Russia – hold a combined 61% of the world’s primary forest.?
Global Primary Forest Loss - From?2002?to?2023, there was a total of?76.3 million hectares of?humid primary forest lost?globally, making up?16%?of?total tree cover loss. Total area of humid primary forest decreased globally by?7.4%?in this time period.
Biodiversity - About 10% of the world’s forests (424 million hectares) are allocated for biodiversity conservation. At an estimated 399 million hectares, the area of forest designated primarily for soil and water protection has increased substantially.
Forest Management - Most of the forests in Europe have management plans. However, management plans exist for only 24% of forests in Africa and 17% in South America. The area of forest under management plans is increasing in all regions, reaching 2.05 billion hectares in 2020.
Forest Carbon - The world’s forests contain about 606 Gt of living biomass (above- and below-ground) and 59 Gt of dead wood. Most forest carbon is found in the living biomass (44%) and soil organic matter (45%), with the remainder in dead wood and litter. The total carbon stock in forests has remained steady - from 668 Gt in 1990 to 662 Gt in 2020. Carbon density has increased slightly over the same period, from 159 tonnes to 163 tonnes per hectare.
Restoring the World’s Stock of Trees
Excluding existing trees, ?agricultural and urban areas, a 2019 study (Bastin et al.) found that there is room for an extra 0.9 billion hectares of canopy cover, which could store 205 Gt C in areas that would naturally support woodlands and forests.
However, climate change will alter this potential tree coverage – the potential canopy cover by 2050 may shrink by c.223 million hectares, with the vast majority of losses occurring in the tropics. Wildfires, fungi, insects and droughts can all cause considerable tree mortality in forests and other forested ecosystems. Climate change and mismanagement are further aggravating tree die-offs.
Thus the opportunity of climate change mitigation through global tree restoration is possible but also there is an urgent need for action.
In an ideal world, we would double the number of trees, through a combination of large-scale reforestation, afforestation, and general restoration of partially-forested land and ecosystems. Given the tree densities involved, this would require a further 2 billion hectares of land. This would seem unfeasible without large-scale restoration of drylands, and a reformation of sorts in agricultural production.
“Food will be a defining issue of the 21st century. Unlocking its potential will catalyse the achievement of both the SDGs and Paris Agreement.”
Summary Report of the EAT-Lancet Commission
Land for Future Agricultural production
Given that we also need agricultural land for food production, we can probably comfortably restore up to 1 trillion trees without encroaching on agricultural land. But perhaps 2 trillion trees if we can aggressively scale up agroforestry and similar activities, and reduce the land use footprint of the agriculture industry.
Almost half of the world’s habitable land is used for agriculture – in total an area of 4.8 billion hectares, or around 5 times the area of the United States. Croplands make up one-third of this (1.6 billion hectares), and grazing land two-thirds (3.2 billion hectares).
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“Global food production threatens climate stability and ecosystem resilience. It constitutes the single largest driver of environmental degradation and transgression of planetary boundaries. Taken together the outcome is dire. A radical transformation of the global food system is urgently needed.”
Prof. Johan Rockstr?m PhD, Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research & Stockholm Resilience Centre
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Of this total, livestock accounts for c.80% of agricultural land use i.e. grazing land plus cropland used for animal feed. The livestock sector also accounts for 14% of GHG emissions and consumes c. 33% of all freshwater. Crops for humans account for 16%, with non-food crops (for biofuels and textiles) around 4%.
As climate change intensifies, this colossal use of freshwater by agriculture is also under threat.
“The surge in extreme hydrological events has been influenced by naturally occurring climate conditions including the transition from La Ni?a to El Ni?o weather patterns in mid-2023 as well as human induced climate change? …????? As a result of rising temperatures, the hydrological cycle has accelerated. It has also become more erratic and unpredictable, and we are facing growing problems of either too much or too little water”
Celeste Saulo, Secretary-General, WMO (World Meteorological Organisation)
Food Production within Planetary Boundaries
A study by Poore and Nemecek (2018) showed that halving consumption of animal products would free up 1.55 billion hectares of agricultural land. That would seem like a natural solution and in harmony with proposed dietary trends.
A medium-term trend of transitioning to more plant-based diets and less beef and dairy, might reduce the amount of agricultural land needed by 30-35% (1.44-1.68 billion hectares).? Such a transition would also reduce GHG emissions and the degradation of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems from acidification and eutrophication. Freshwater withdrawals would also fall.
“Transformation to healthy diets by 2050 will require substantial dietary shifts. Global consumption of fruits, vegetables, nuts and legumes will have to double, and consumption of foods such as red meat and sugar will have to be reduced by more than 50%. A diet rich in plant-based foods and with fewer animal source foods confers both improved health and environmental benefits.”
Prof. Walter Willett MD, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health,
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Given current trends, this might well be the path we are on. The 2019 EAT-Lancet report ? concludes it is possible, as long as there is widespread action in multiple sectors - a substantial shift towards healthier diets; a large reduction in food waste; and major improvements in food production practices.
“There are over 570m farms all of which need slightly different ways to reduce their impact. It is an [environmental] challenge like no other sector of the economy…? But at least $500bn is spent every year on agricultural subsidies, and probably much more: “There is a lot of money there to do something really good with.”
Joseph Poore, Oxford University
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Land for Large-Scale Restoration
If say 60% of this previously-agricultural land was reforested / afforested, that would equate to 0.86 - 1.01 billion hectares of new forests, or around 650-760 billion trees.
The total tree restoration potential is higher still, as set out in Bastin et al. (2019) and its response to comments.
Conclusion
Once these trees are fully grown, the total amount of carbon that could be stored in areas available for restoration ranges between 206 - 349 GtC.
206 Gt C for the 95th percentile tree cover – average carbon equivalent per biome.
239 GtC for the 75th percentile tree cover – average carbon equivalent per biome;
349 GtC for the median tree cover – average carbon equivalent per biome;
This equates to 27-48% of estimated anthropogenic?emissions since 1750 (730 Gt C).
These numbers demonstrate that natural tree cover restoration and conservation, alongside the carbon-dense activities of blue carbon restoration, are the most viable solutions to restore ecosystems and remove atmospheric carbon. Of course, this achieves far more than just tackling carbon drawdown. By ensuring that the ecosystems recover, this provides greater resilience against climate change, protection against the loss of plant and animal biodiversity, an improved hydrological / bioprecipitation cycle, and reduced storm and erosion risks.
Appendix 1 takes a closer look at the world’s existing tree cover, how it is distributed, and reforestation opportunities.
Appendix 2 continues the list of tree planting organisations.
Appendix 3 continues the above summary of Reforestation Programs and Initiatives around the world.
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Recent posts:
The sheer number and severity of recent extreme weather events is a sign of things to come.? With COP29 just a month away, what are the world's leaders going to do about it?
With just 6 weeks to go, the world’s nations are set to decide on a new climate-finance goal, to go beyond the $100 billion per year target set at COP15 in 2009.
Alongside the massive expansion (and funding) of land restoration and regenerative agriculture schemes and the reduction of CO2, are other solutions on the horizon?
Despite a slew of international accords over the past three decades, along with 28 COPs, the rate of decline continues. Focus has diverted away from direct physical solutions, towards technological and market solutions supporting short-term decarbonisation. Yet we have the solutions and available funding.
The Environmental Imperative ?15.9.2024
The?tipping risk elements of the Earth system, their nature and interdependence, and how to mitigate these risks going forwards
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Appendix 1 – The World’s Existing Tree Cover and Reforestation Opportunities
The above table sets out the top 31 countries, ranked by number of trees and tree densities. These 31 countries collectively hold 2.61 trillion trees, or just under 86% of the world’s stock.
Adding 20% to the stock of each country would imply a further 522 billion trees, in simple terms, something which should be feasible for most of them.?
An interesting perspective might be to look at countries that have the largest numbers of trees per km2 and trees per person. Such countries might be seen as wealthy countries in the future, in terms of their natural wealth. At least in the reforested world we would like to create, where the true value of natural capital is appreciated and accounted for.
?Reforestation Opportunities
The following maps show the regional potential for reforestation opportunities.
Appendix 2
Tree Planting Organisations
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Summary of the 33 1t.org winners
The Uplink “Trillion Trees” initiative was launched in July 2020, with 33 winners from 298 submissions announced in October 2020.
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Appendix 3
Reforestation Programs and Initiatives - Part 2
Below is a selection of impactful A/R projects from around the world, each demonstrating innovative approaches to restoring degraded lands, supporting local communities, and restoring nature.?
Vichada Climate Reforestation Project (PAZ) in Colombia - The Vichada Climate Reforestation Project is a Gold Standard-certified A/R initiative located in the Orinoco Department of Colombia. This project focuses on reforesting degraded and fragile areas with the primary aim of creating close-to-nature forests. By planting high-quality hardwood species, the project contributes to carbon sequestration and promotes ecological stability and biodiversity conservation. The project is designed to be economically, socially, and ecologically viable, blending profitable production systems with conservation efforts. The project’s long-term goal is to establish a model for profitable yet sustainable forestry that benefits both the environment and local communities. With a crediting period from Feb 2006 to Feb 2035, the Vichada Climate Reforestation Project highlights the potential of combining economic activity with environmental stewardship, ensuring that reforestation efforts are both impactful and sustainable over the long term. It is registered with the Gold Standard under ID: 4221.
BaumInvest Reforestation Project in Costa Rica - The BaumInvest Reforestation Project is a Gold Standard-certified A/R initiative located in northern Costa Rica, to transform degraded pasture lands previously used for extensive cattle ranching into thriving forests. The project focuses on reforesting these areas with a mix of indigenous tree species and teak, thereby creating ecologically and socially sustainable forests. This reforestation effort spans two significant biosphere reserves covering 736 hectares, Agua y Paz and Cordillera Volcánica Central, both of which are recognised under UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere programme. One of the key environmental benefits of the project is its contribution to the habitat of the endangered Great Green Macaw and other threatened species, enhancing biodiversity in the region. The project’s design also includes a commitment to nature conservation, with approximately 30% of the reforested area set aside exclusively for this purpose. These conservation areas, including remaining natural forests and wetlands, are protected permanently and connected through biological corridors to facilitate the movement and survival of wildlife. The BaumInvest project also has significant social benefits. It provides secure, long-term employment opportunities and fair working conditions for the local population. Furthermore, smallholders are given access to the project area to practise small-scale agroforestry, allowing them to cultivate crops between the trees. The BaumInvest Reforestation Project, with its combination of sustainable forestry, biodiversity conservation, and social responsibility, serves as a model for how reforestation can contribute to both environmental restoration and community development. It is registered with the Gold Standard under ID: 2913 and has a crediting period of October 2007―October 2035 with an estimated 10,602 credits annually.
Bagepalli CDM Reforestation Programme in India - The Bagepalli CDM Reforestation Programme is a Gold Standard-certified A/R project located in the Chikkaballapur District of Karnataka, India. This small-scale reforestation initiative is focused on rehabilitating degraded agricultural lands across five taluks within the district. These lands, which are privately owned by some of the poorest farmers and agricultural labourers in the region, have suffered from extreme degradation due to poor soil conditions and a scarcity of water resources, making them largely uncultivable or marginally productive. The primary objective of the Bagepalli project is to restore these degraded lands through reforestation, thereby improving their ecological value and productivity. By planting a variety of tree species, the project aims to enhance soil fertility, improve water retention, and ultimately make these lands more suitable for sustainable agricultural practices in the future. One of the most significant challenges faced by the farmers in this region is the periodic droughts and recurring water scarcity, which have made traditional farming increasingly difficult. Through the Bagepalli project, these communities are given the opportunity to engage in land-based activities that are more resilient to such environmental challenges. The Bagepalli CDM Reforestation Programme exemplifies how targeted reforestation efforts can address both environmental degradation and socio-economic challenges, providing a pathway to sustainable development for vulnerable communities in India. This project is registered with the Gold Standard under ID: 4240 and has a crediting period of May 2013―May 2023 with an estimated 92,103 credits annually.
Reforestation of Degraded Lands in Sierra Leone - The Reforestation of Degraded Lands project in Sierra Leone, led by Miro Forestry, is a large-scale initiative focused on transforming over 12,000 hectares of degraded land into productive and sustainable forest plantations. This ambitious project, expanding at a rate of 3,000 hectares per year, produces a variety of sustainable timber products including plywood, rotary veneer, poles, sawn timber, and wood biomass. The plantations are certified by the Forest Stewardship Council? (FSC?), ensuring they meet the highest international standards of responsible forest management. The project involves leasing land under long-term agreements with local landowners, which have been ratified by the local chiefs and government, ensuring legal compliance and community involvement. Although the area has limited subsistence farming, primarily in the low-lying swampy regions used for rice cultivation, the project works closely with local farmers to enhance these agricultural activities. By opening up swampy areas for rice cultivation and promoting controlled agroforestry, the project provides clear land for subsistence farming and mutual crop protection and helps keep the land free of nutrient-depleting undergrowth. Miro Forestry is committed to maintaining high environmental, ethical, financial, and social standards and aims to achieve international forestry certification for all its plantations. This project contributes to the reforestation of degraded lands and integrates sustainable forestry practices with local agricultural needs, providing both environmental and economic benefits to the communities involved. The project is registered with Verra under ID: 2401 with a crediting period between May 2016 and May 2046.
Liangdu Afforestation Project in China - The Liangdu Afforestation Project is a large-scale initiative located in the mountainous region of Liupanshui City, Guizhou Province, China. This project aims to transform barren lands into thriving forests by planting native species, contributing significantly to greenhouse gas (GHG) removal and supporting local Sustainable Development Goals. Spanning 23,720 hectares, the project is set in a region that has historically suffered from poor ecological conditions and karst rocky desertification. The project is managed by Guizhou Xinzhanxin Agricultural Technology Co, Ltd, which has been authorised by village committees to oversee the afforestation efforts. All the barren lands targeted for afforestation are owned by local villagers, and the village committees manage these lands on their behalf. Through this project, Guizhou Xinzhanxin implements and monitors the afforestation activities and consolidates the carbon offset resources into sizable forestry projects. The revenue generated from selling Verified Carbon Units (VCUs) is shared with the villagers, providing them with a direct economic benefit. The project has created 15,220 jobs for local villagers, with a significant emphasis on gender inclusion—70% of these jobs are held by women. This not only boosts the local economy but also empowers women in the community. In terms of environmental impact, the project is expected to reduce GHG emissions by 10,077,450 tonnes of CO2 equivalent (tCO2e) over the next 29 years, with an average annual GHG removal of 347,498 tCO2e. The project is registered with Verra under ID: 2083.
‘El Arriero’ Afforestation Project in Uruguay - The ‘El Arriero’ Afforestation Project is a transformative initiative located in the eastern region of Uruguay, where 5,377 hectares of land previously used for extensive grazing by beef cattle are being converted into high-quality timber production forests. This project aims to establish sustainable timber plantations that not only produce valuable, long-lived timber products but also sequester significant amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The project’s approach involves replanting forests after each felling, ensuring continuous carbon capture through multiple rotations. This method secures long-term carbon storage, making a lasting impact on both the environment and the economy. By protecting habitat connectivity during the afforestation process, the project also prioritises biodiversity preservation, ensuring that local ecosystems remain intact and thriving. In addition to its environmental benefits, the project contributes significantly to sustainable development in Uruguay. It promotes rural development by decentralising economic activities and increasing both the quantity and quality of local employment. Forestry, as introduced by the project, is expected to employ more than twice as many people as the previous grazing activities, creating new opportunities for the local population and fostering investment in downstream timber industries. Projects like ‘El Arriero’ are essential for protecting old-growth forests and ensuring the responsible use of timber resources. This project not only addresses the immediate need for sustainable timber but also contributes to the long-term ecological and economic resilience of the region. The project is registered with Verra under ID: 961.
Australia’s Great Koala National Park - This park aims to protect crucial koala habitats through reforestation, reducing habitat fragmentation, and supporting biodiversity Conservation in one of Australia’s key ecosystems. By involving local communities and stakeholders, the project not only ensures the protection of these lovable marsupials but also supports the overall health of the ecosystem. One of the highlights of this initiative is its community-centered approach. Local volunteers and Conservation groups are actively engaged in planting native trees and monitoring the growth of newly established forests. This grassroots involvement not only boosts local economies but also fosters a deep sense of environmental stewardship among participants. Overall, Australia’s Great Koala National Park stands as a testament to the power of reforestation in preserving critical wildlife habitats, ensuring the survival of our precious koalas for generations to come.
Arbor Day Foundation’s Reforestation Projects, United States - The Arbor Day Foundation has been pivotal in planting millions of trees across the United States, often in areas affected by wildfires, hurricanes, and other catastrophic events. A standout project is the reforestation efforts in California, especially after the devastating wildfires that have ravaged the state. By working with local partners such as the U.S. Forest Service and CAL FIRE, the foundation has not only replanted thousands of acres but also introduced fire-resistant species to better withstand future fires. The foundation’s initiatives extend beyond immediate disaster recovery. They emphasize long-term ecological health and biodiversity. By planting a diverse mix of native trees, these projects aim to restore natural habitats and provide resilience against Climate change. Another notable initiative is the ongoing work on the Gulf Coast, where hurricanes have caused significant deforestation. In partnership with the State of Louisiana, the Arbor Day Foundation is helping to rebuild coastal forests that act as critical buffers against storm surges and contribute to the region’s ecological balance. By 2023, over 200 million trees had been planted, directly benefiting wildlife, improving air and water quality, and supporting local economies. Their future goals are ambitious, aiming for another 100 million trees planted by 2030, with a strong emphasis on collaboration, community involvement, and adaptive strategies to meet evolving environmental challenges.
The Nicaforest High Impact Reforestation Program (since 2015) in Nicaragua - The Nicaforest Program has 490 hectares of land under management and aims to contribute to the creation of a sustainable value-chain by working closely with local landowners in a Shared Benefit Scheme. The program plants teak and other valuable species for future timber production and added-value wood production as well as other measures aimed at increasing resilience in the local municipalities. The project protects the remaining patches of native vegetation and creates additional conservation areas on the banks of rivers and other watersheds. The forests offer a natural habitat for native animals and plants, protect and enrich the soil, save and filter water and contribute to the mitigation of the greenhouse effect. The Nicaforest Program is in its pilot phase and is certified by Gold Standard and Forestry Stewardship Council (FSC). Nicaforest has planted 360,000 trees sequestering approximately 98,000 tons of CO2. The teak and protected forests serve as a natural form of carbon storage. They also manage and secure watersheds through avoiding harvesting next to bodies of water, delaying road construction, and more. The Norwegian company Across Forest AS is the promoter and the subsidiary, Nicaforest Plantations S.a in Santo Tomas, Chontales region in Nicaragua, is operating the program in Nicaragua.
The Kwimba Reforestation Project in Tanzania - In 1990, Tanzania embarked on the Kwimba Reforestation Project. An international group of people and businesses worked together to reforest land near forty settlements. Widespread deforestation is a problem in Sub-Saharan Africa, with the main cause being the consumption of wood for domestic purposes. The Kwimba area lost much of its forest cover in the early 20th century due to fuel wood collection and forest clearing efforts that were motivated by a desire to eradicate the Tsetse fly. The Kwimba endeavour was motivated by the need to improve the efficiency of wood utilization as a fuel source, and to stimulate economic growth generally. This includes the ladies of the area building more efficient cookstoves and establishing community and school plant nurseries in addition to planting Australian eucalyptus trees. Australian and African NGOs and government institutions worked together on this. Over the project’s initial nine years, almost 6.4 million trees were planted. One of the more innovative features of providing traceability for these trees was the idea of “tree ownership certificates”. Which granted the owner title to the tree regardless of who owned the property on which it was placed.
The Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative in the US - Despite its abundance of natural resources, the Appalachian region in the east of the United States has historically had a low standard of living. Many people in the area make a living in the coal mining industry. However, this has led to large areas of the landscape being stripped of their trees. In the mid- 2000s, the Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative (ARRI) got to work reversing the damage caused by mining. UNEP estimates that ARRI has overseen the planting of 60 million trees on approximately 87,000 acres of existing mine sites in Appalachia. This has not only helped recover one of the most biodiverse areas in the US, but it has also provided viable alternatives to the mining business, most notably in sustainable logging and the tourism sector. When developing and implementing ARRI, the coal industry was included with state governments, academic institutions, private landowners, and more.?
The Mixteca Region Reforestation in Mexico - Before Spanish explorers arrived in what is now Oaxaca, Mexico, the Mixteca region was forested. The land was changed into a desert due to goat herding and heavy logging in the late 20th century. Erosion management measures were not implemented alongside the use of modern farming practices, further degrading the soil. Jess Leon Santos, a farmer in the 1980s, was taught by Guatemalan immigrants about traditional farming methods. To put these methods into practice, including reforestation as a means of restoring the soil, he established the Center for Integrated Small Farmer Development in the Mixteca (CEDICAM). CEDICAM has not only reforested over a thousand acres (with one million trees) through the use of terraced agricultural techniques, containment ditches for preventing hillside erosion, and native tree species but it has also helped increase economic opportunity and even gender equality in the region. In 2008, Santos won the Goldman Environment Award.
Gaviotas Reforestation Project in Colombia - Over 200 people live in the ecovillage of Gaviotas, Colombia, in the Llanos grasslands. Although it is significantly smaller than the other areas considered, the United Nations has recognized this town as “a model of sustainable development” for its work in reforesting the area. These once-forested areas have been largely destroyed by the ongoing civil war in the country. People in Gaviotas have been planting Caribbean pine trees since the 1980s, and they’ve been using mycorrhizal fungi to help the trees thrive in the acidic soil. Successful reforestation efforts on over 20,000 acres have led to new economic options for village residents. Including the production of resin for use in cosmetics and the launch of biodiesel programs. Modifications to local weather patterns can be attributed to the expanded forest cover. As a result of a 10% increase in precipitation, an initiative to bottle the water is underway. ?
Lake Aral Afforestation Project, Kazakhstan - The Lake Aral Afforestation Project is an ambitious initiative aimed at reclaiming and restoring the dried banks of the Aral Sea in Kazakhstan's Kyzylorda Region. This project focuses on planting saxaul, a resilient, salt-tolerant tree species, which is ideally suited to the harsh conditions of the region. By establishing new saxaul ecosystems, the project aims to stabilise the soil, improve air quality, and mitigate the severe impacts of sand-salt storms that frequently affect the area. In addition to tree planting, the project incorporates improved grazing techniques to further protect and enhance the restored ecosystems. This combination of afforestation and sustainable land management practices is crucial for fostering resilient ecosystems and addressing the significant environmental challenges caused by the shrinking of the Aral Sea. The Lake Aral Afforestation Project is a vital effort in rehabilitating this devastated landscape, contributing to the long-term ecological health and stability of the region.
Nestled in the heart of Kazakhstan's Kyzylorda Region, the Lake Aral Afforestation Project seeks to revive the once-thriving banks of the Aral Sea. By planting resilient saxaul vegetation, we aim to combat the severe environmental issues of soil erosion, poor air quality, and the harsh impacts of sand-salt storms. The saxaul, a robust, salt-tolerant species, is perfectly suited to flourish under the challenging conditions of the Aral Sea's dried banks, bringing about a much-needed ecological transformation. The ecological strategy focuses on reforestation with saxaul trees and implementing sustainable grazing practices. These efforts are poised to significantly mitigate the adverse effects of salt, dust, and sand, marking a pivotal step towards healing the landscape. The project is also a testament to our commitment to carbon reduction, with a rigorous internal process in place to quantify the carbon sequestered by the new saxaul ecosystems.
The essence of this project lies in its collaborative spirit. By engaging with local communities, government bodies, and various stakeholders, we ensure a shared vision for sustainability and responsible implementation. Our initiatives are designed to bring economic opportunities and environmental improvements to the Kyzylorda Region, one of Kazakhstan's most ecologically vulnerable areas. The Lake Aral Afforestation Project stands to support not just the immediate environment but the global community. Through community engagement, sustainable practices, and a commitment to high carbon standards, we are setting a benchmark for environmental restoration projects worldwide.
Reforestation in Kalimantan, Borneo - Funded by the IKI, a partnership between the Fairventures organisation and a family-run business German power tool manufacturer ANDREAS STIHL AG & Co. KG from Baden-Württemberg, has led to a scaling-up of afforestation activities. Between 2016 and 2020, Fairventures Worldwide implemented the IKI project “Rehabilitation of degraded areas with native tree species in Kalimantan (Indonesia)” on Borneo. Part of the project involved developing a scalable method for the restoration of degraded formerly forested areas with fast-growing native trees and catch crops. This approach is unusual, because the reforestation model has been explicitly conceived of from the perspective of the value chains involved - the tree species planted are in demand for plywood production, which creates incentives both for harvesting and for subsequent replanting. On Borneo, in Indonesia and in Uganda, areas will be afforested exclusively for STIHL over the next three years. As result of this afforestation project, around 120,000 t of CO? will be captured and 60,000 saplings planted. Fairventures Social Forestry has teamed up with local Indonesian communities and applied a commercial model to afforest larger, contiguous areas that will be managed with agroforestry systems in the future. This work has also involved a scaling-up approach that originated in the IKI project. The TREEO app is being used to measure the success of planting activities. This app makes it possible to register the location of each individually planted tree.
Greenzone Reforestation Project, Cameroon?- The Greenzone Reforestation Project is an initiative by?DGB Group?to promote reforestation and afforestation in Cameroon. The project focuses on planting agroforestry crop trees on communal lands, benefiting smallholders who seek income from perennial nuts, fruits, and indigenous trees. These efforts will contribute to regional wildlife habitats or corridors, enhance water infiltration, control erosion, and sequester carbon. Before the project's inception, vast areas of customary chiefdom land had been degraded to shrubby grasslands. The project will operate across Cameroon, starting in the Mbam-et-Kim Department, involving communities with access to customary chiefdom lands. The project ensures the survival of trees for at least 41 years, providing farmers with income diversification while increasing vegetative cover on agricultural land. This project is planting over 16 million trees, positively impacting the lives of 2,500 farmers, and will restore 44,255 hectares of land.?The Greenzone Reforestation Project is registered under VCS?ID 4176?in the Verra registry with a current status of ‘Under validation’. It is estimated to sequester a total of 21.7 million tonnes of carbon emissions over its lifetime.
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All we need is Love ! ??? #SaveSoil ????????