The remedy for inner peace, according to David Hume

The ideas of Scottish philosopher David Hume have influenced modern philosophy, and his thoughts presage models and conceptions in the fields of science, the arts or history. Here I am particularly interested in his conception of the passions, particularly anger, and how education can limit excess and help us become better people. In sum, how to enjoy a healthy inner peace.

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Hume's life provides a powerful illustration of consistency with his own ideas. His friend and fellow philosopher Adam Smith, the father of modern economic liberalism, wrote in a letter after his death that Hume represented "the idea of a perfectly wise and virtuous man, as perhaps the nature of human frailty will permit."

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A few months before his death, Hume wrote a brief memoir, which in my opinion is a model of modesty. It is a short text, easily read in less than an hour, which reveals the basic features of his character, his life choices and his frustrations. From a young age he had a predilection for philosophy and literature, although his family steered him toward studying the law. His early works did not achieve the success he had hoped for, although eventually he was able to live well from their sales. Hume was not a believer, and his criticisms of religion and denial of the existence of God are formulated in a tone respectful of the devout, while implacable in their arguments.

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About himself he explains: "I was, I say, a man of mild dispositions, of command of temper, of an open, social, and cheerful humour, capable of attachment, but little susceptible of enmity, and of great moderation in all my passions. Even my love of literary fame, my ruling passion, never soured my temper, notwithstanding my frequent disappointments".

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It is not uncommon for thinkers, writers and artists to engage in disputes with other colleagues, and while this exchange can be creative, generating a constructive dialectic, it can also lead to bitterness and recrimination, resulting in little more than an unedifying intellectual sideshow. Voltaire, for example, was a scathing critic of many of his contemporaries, who responded in kind. So were most of the cynical philosophers in antiquity, capable of simultaneously criticizing two contrary ideas. More recently, my tutor at Oxford during my Ph.D. preparation, Ronald Dworkin, built his success as a scholar on dismantling the ideas of his predecessor, H.L.A. Hart. This may in part be due to the critical spirit instilled in Ph.D. students: in many academic seminars it is normal for the speaker to be confronted by a discussant who questions the fundamental theses of their presentation. The result of this interaction is supposed to be creative and clarifying.

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Hume himself was not spared the invectives of other thinkers, mainly believers, annoyed by his arguments about religion and the rational demonstration of the existence of God. However, his style was always to avoid polemics: "I had fixed a resolution, which I inflexibly maintained, never to reply to any body; and not being very irascible in my temper, I have easily kept myself clear of all literary squabbles." Adam Smith, who knew him well, explained that "his temper, indeed, seemed to be more happily balanced, if I may be allowed such an expression, than that perhaps of any other man I have ever known." As his biographers explain, Hume's life proves that religion is not a precondition of virtue.

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How did Hume manage to achieve this remarkable virtuous balance?

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In his highly recommended essay "Of the Delicacy of Taste and Passion," published posthumously in 1777, he writes: "Nothing is so improving to the temper as the study of the beauties, either of poetry, eloquence, music, or painting." The main theme of this essay argues that cultivating the liberal arts and humanities generates happiness and helps develop the resilience needed to face life's adversities. Hume draws on the long tradition of educating young leaders, as far back as Rome, reflected in thinkers such as Aristotle, Plutarch, Seneca and Thomas Aquinas, and continued by the universities. This tradition directly related the development of virtues to the knowledge of classical thought and the contributions of philosophy throughout history.

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In his essay, Hume distinguishes between two types of sensibility, or delicacies, that shape the human personality. The first is passion, which refers to the degree of emotional intensity with which we react to the circumstances and events of our lives, whether positive or negative. People with a more pronounced sensibility passion feel euphoric in joyful circumstances and sink in adverse situations. These passionate beings can forge ardent friendships quickly and enthusiastically value honors and accolades. However, they also feel rejected and offended when criticized.

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On the opposite side of the spectrum are the more self-controlled, thoughtful people who react moderately to life's ups and downs. They are neither elated by good news nor discouraged by adversity.

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Hume explains that it is beneficial to exercise moderation in all things, since we experience more sorrows and pains than pleasures and joys, especially at the end of life, and we are not able to control our fate entirely.

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Hume also identifies what he call sensitivity of taste. This quality is developed primarily by cultivating the humanities and the arts. Those who have a marked delicacy of taste are able to appreciate and enjoy good literature and music and experience real emotional pleasure in practicing them. At the other extreme, those who lack this delicacy may feel indifferent when exposed to works of art or poetry.

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His argument made, Hume makes the following proposition: "delicacy of taste is as much to be desired and cultivated as delicacy of passion is to be regretted, and to be remedied, if possible." The key to this proposal lies in the possibility of being masters of our passions and desires, of controlling our life. Given that we have no control over the future, it is preferable to cultivate the cognitive and emotional faculties that make it easier for us to cope with unforeseen events. As many other philosophers have explained down the centuries, the happiness of the wisest people depends on themselves and not on luck or external circumstances.

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Hume argues that focusing on developing our sensibility or delicacy of taste can counteract the negative effects of being passionate, allowing those with a propensity toward anger to shape their character: "Nothing is so proper to cure us of this delicacy of passion, as the cultivating of that higher and more refined taste [...] a new reason for cultivating a relish in the liberal arts. Our judgment will strengthen by this exercise: We shall form juster notions of life: Many things, which please or afflict others, will appear to us too frivolous to engage our attention: And we shall lose by degrees that sensibility and delicacy of passion, which is so incommodious."

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In short, education and increasing our knowledge improve our character, granting us greater autonomy and freedom of thought. That said, developing our taste is a lifelong process, requiring more than reading the occasional book or attending an opera every now and then. Keeping a diary where we discuss books we’ve read, films we’ve seen, exhibitions and concerts we’ve attended, as well as our thoughts about our experiences, is a practical way to further develop our cultural sensibility. Refining our taste also improves multicultural management skills. In another of his essays, Hume explains, "You will never convince a man who is not accustomed to Italian music, and has no ear to follow its satisfaction, that a Scotch song is not preferable." Hume's approach evokes the idea that the music is not preferable.

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Hume evokes Plato’s analogy of Phaedrus, that our soul is akin to a charioteer guiding a chariot drawn by two horses: "Our charioteer governs the pair he drives; one of his horses is beautiful and good and of like parents, the other is the opposite in both respects. Hence the driving is hard and difficult for us." Both Plato and Hume understood this unfathomable aspect of the human personality, capable of deviating to the extreme and committing unimaginable iniquities, indulging in vices, or alternatively rising and behaving in the most benevolent and generous manner. The charioteer's prowess depends on practicing the virtues, those positive operative habits, cultivating education and developing our taste.

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In the business environment, respect for diversity, the encouragement of individuality, compatible with the impulse of teamwork, can reduce group anger, especially when mistakes have been made or poor results obtained, and avoid scapegoating, which only stymies initiative and an innovative, entrepreneurial culture. For this reason, continuing education, particularly the humanities, can also bring about the effects that Hume outlined.

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The Scottish philosopher’s death reflected his modesty and sense of dignity. Making use of the sense of humor that characterizes the peacemakers, he conveyed this message to his friend Adam Smith shortly before his demise: "Doctor, as I believe you would not chuse to tell any thing but the truth, you had better tell him, that I am dying as fast as my enemies, if I have any, could wish, and as easily and cheerfully as my best friends could desire."

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Photo above: Bri Schneiter https://www.pexels.com/search/landscape/

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