Recap of Minefill 2024

I recently participated in Minefill 2024 in Vancouver on behalf of Pump & Flow . Given the timing between Minefill 2024 and Paste 2024, I’ve fielded a few questions on how they compare.

Here’s a recap on the papers, categorised into the 7 different trends that I identified:

• Paste performance
• Paste operation
• Case studies
• Testing
• Paste at high/low temperatures
• Admixtures and impurities
• Design practices

Please note that the summaries presented here are very high level and of course only represent a small snippet of the work that the authors have put in. I highly encourage interested readers to seek out the papers to appreciate the full insights offered by the authors.

Paste performance

Self-healing properties of paste

Weizou Quan and Mamadou Fall presented a paper which explored the self-healing capacity of cemented paste backfill material. They noted that few studies have delved into paste’s self-healing capability, but demonstrated that there is a significant self-healing capacity. This is because the cracks within the cemented paste backfill matrix enhance the hydration reactions? and according to the author’s experiments, after 7 days of self-healing the pre-cracked specimens restored mechanical and permeation properties to levels comparable to uncracked control specimens; cracks up to 68 um were found to be completely healed after 90 days.

Cold joints

Bre-Anne Sainsbury & David Sainsbury , Dean Harty , Florencio Felipe , Marc Ruest and David McLoughney followed up from an extremely interesting paper that was presented at ACG’s Paste conference a few weeks earlier. The team set about to improve the understanding of the mechanical properties of internal discontinuities in cemented paste backfill, and through lab testing found that a) slick joints in tension have a strength of ~5.6% of the UCS, and b) cold joints have a tension strength of ~0.6% of UCS. As part of this work the authors demonstrated that when a backfill beam is more than 70% of the span width it is unlikely to cause instability issues. A key takeaway is that this should be considered as the minimum thickness of a continuous plug pour.

The effect of squeeze

Hongbin Liu and Mamadou Fall explored the effect that convergence has on cemented paste backfill. To do this the team developed an apparatus to apply multi-axis compressive stresses to a sample to mimic the closure that is encountered in deep underground mines. Test results showed that vertical stress (self-weight) and horizontal stresses (convergence) can significantly enhance the early-age UCS of cemented paste backfill due to the densification of the poor structure and the acceleration of the cement hydration.

The impact of self-weight on paste

Murray Grabinsky , Mohammadamin Jafari and Mo Shahsavari observed that while self-weight consolidation should improve strength gains, in practice the benefit is inconsequential. The team studied the underlying causes for the lack of consolidation by simulating the response expected in the topmost layers of deposited backfill in a Williams mine stope. They did this by fabricating a 1.8 m column with carefully controlled boundary conditions, and operated it using representative backfilling rates. They confirmed that self-weight consolidation in cemented paste backfill is inconsequential because binder hydration increases strength and stiffness to sufficiently resist any volume changes that may occur during backfilling. Other operations who intend to rely on the benefit of self-weight to reduce binder content were urged to undertake testwork.

Paste variation through a stope

Xiaopeng Peng, Lijie Guo, Guangsheng Liu, Xiaoming Wei and Lei Zhang explored the variation of in-situ cemented paste backfill by testing for the UCS and segregation of a backfilled stope. The team noticed that strength is quite varied, and although the cement content is biased (increasing in the direction of flow), they noted that the strength was not determined simply by cement content, but also by porosity. Bleed water also appears to be more prevalent at the far end of the stope from the point of discharge, reducing strength. The team discussed the impact of particle size distribution and postulated how it could be managed to control the segregation properties, and hence plug strength uniformity.

Maximum vertical stress in tall backfilled stopes

Murray Grabinsky and Ben Thompson examined elastic arching effects in tall cemented paste backfilled stopes. In paste the traditional basis of arching – that there is granular material shear resistance fully mobilised along the contact surfaces of the wall – is not accurate because the backfill hydrates and gains significant strength and stiffness before the pore water pressure dissipates and effective stresses develop within the backfill. The pair reasoned that an elastic response to developing effective stress was likely, so that stresses develop along the sidewalls during elastic, pre-failure loading. This was further investigated and the authors found that for tall stopes it was possible to determine a maximum vertical centreline stress, and provided a model to predict the variation against relative depth.

Paste operations

Responding to changing tailings

Louis-Philippe Gélinas, ing. and Jane Alcott discussed the challenges they face at Agnico Eagle, with huge daily variations in tailings mineralogy affecting the backfill operations and the paste which they were producing. Some materials contained significant amounts of phyllosilicate minerals containing muscovite, clinochlore, and chlorite, which require a higher binder concentration. The particle size distribution of the tailings feed was also changing concurrently, requiring the water content to be modified accordingly in order to achieve a useable rheology. The pair described how the site team implemented a project to collate data from PI Historian and link it with laboratory results (mineralogy, UCS, PSD and rheology), and then present it in an accessible Power BI dashboard. Power BI makes it easy for the entire team to validate mix designs, and has lead to multiple optimisation and innovation initiatives.

Harvesting tailings

Jeremy Boswell , Charlie Mallory , Maureen McGuiness and Nancy Sims described some of the new responsibilities that tailings harvesting schemes need to adopt in order to comply with the recent changes to regulations, guidelines, and leading practice. The paper focused on the risks, safety and stability of the TSF harvesting – which is frequently an afterthought in many sites in WA (admittedly low risk compared to other jurisdictions).

Justifying improvements

Paul Carmichael and Maureen McGuinness have attempted to determine the real cost of bad paste – that is, the long term, downstream consequences, which might involve reworking mine designs, additional underground development, mass failure into adjacent stopes, dilution, sequence delay, sterilisation, etc. As they note, these costs are rarely evaluated as mine planning and operations scramble to recover and continue largely because the resulting costs are absorbed by multiple departments. However, quantifying these costs will help operations justify the upfront costs of good quality backfill engineer, construction, instrumentation, engineers, operators – costs that are frequently overlooked in attempts to reduce capital and operating expenditures. As you could imagine not many sites were willing to share much data on their various failures, but the authors’ analysis showed that the indirect costs dwarf the direct costs, and concluded that it is far more cost effective to act proactively rather than implementing best practice after an incident.

Paste case studies

A sandfill case study

Jacob Landriault, P.Eng. , Brent Robitaille, P.Eng., PMP and Tamara Kraft presented a nice case study of a new hydraulic backfill plant at Vale’s Manitoba Operations. The paper described the process used to select the most appropriate recipe, plant design, and commissioning.

Super paste!

Lesly Betancourt , Ryan Veenstra , Tamara Kraft and Enock Owusu Mensah summarised an interesting experience that occurred out at Newmont’s Porcupine’s Hoyle Pond mine. At this site tailings are harvested during the summer and stockpiled for use over winter, however due to some issues there were not enough tailings – and so they replaced the tailings with binder to create “super paste” to allow the operation to maintain its production schedule. Testwork showed that the super paste had different rheology to a standard mix, however the differences were not large enough to cause any operational issues. As you could imagine, super paste had a super high strength.

100% backfill

Bernie Ting , Arthur Lieu MSc, PEng , Nick Espenberg and Blake Martel, P.Eng described an active project which blew me away; whereas most backfill sites might return 50% of the waste rock underground, NexGen Energy is working to place 100% of the waste underground. The team have been busy designing a backfill system that can reliably handle all streams of waste from the process plant, regardless of particle size and mineralogy. To do this they have designed three independent paste production processes in order to avoid downtime – two duty and one standby to provide sufficient redundancy. I am extremely interested to hear how this goes, because many sites in my neck of the woods struggle with low quality tailings feedstock and so we could learn some lessons from the team at NexGen.

Telfer

Richard Pearce shared a nice update from the Minefill team about the Telfer paste plant project. I believe Jed Percy is looking forward to taking over the reins as the system moves into operation any moment now?

Selecting tailings for paste

Laszlo Bodi , Mikhail Morunov, P.Eng , Brent Robitaille, P.Eng., PMP and Tamara Kraft stepped the audience through the process of assessing the suitability of historic tailings for a paste system at Kidd Mine. This is typical feasibility study level work, and is a paper worth reading for those who may be embarking on something similar.

A new backfill method

Yongchao Gong, Renze Ou, Chun Yang, Weixing Lin, Ronghua Shu, Jia Sheng, Yuantao Zhang, Lo Zhou, Fei Wu and Jintao Lu demonstrated real innovation – I am very frequently impressed by the research and trials that are coming out of China. I feel there is significantly more willingness to innovate than what I see locally. This presentation took me a little while to wrap my mind around it, but essentially the team used cofferdams as formwork between fractured pillars at a Tungsten mine. The cofferdam was made out of woven polypropylene geofabricform and then filled with cemented tailings. Once the cofferdam had been filled and cured, the previously fractured pillars were joined (through an elaborate network) to form a unified structure, then allowing the goaf to be safely filled. As a bonus, the authors also mentioned some other unique paste ideas, including foam fill, gel fill, frozen fill, and fibre fill.

Remotely actuated diverters

Russell Evans , Marc Carriere and Wayne Johnstone demonstrated the benefits of implementing remote actuation for diverter/dump valves in an underground paste reticulation network. As a side note I believe I procured and installed the very first Victaulic one in Australia, Dave Johnson , back in 2017 or 2018?

Paste testing

A new test apparatus

Yue Zhao, Lije Guo, Chong Jia, Guangsheng Liu, Xiacong Yang and Di Zheng introduced a new device to assess the combined impact of thermal, hydraulic and mechanical loads on a sample, as they would act in situ. They call the new device a “Twin Curing Apparatus”, (TCA) which appears to offer a much better characterisation than the simple UCS. Could this form the foundation of a long-awaited standard for paste testing?

Picking the best cylinder size

Joseph Seymour, Kathryn Dehn , Tyler Emery PE , David Sweet, PE , Josef Bourgeois , Gregory Feagan , Sean Warren, PhD, PE and Vincent Lamin Bonzumah worked on selecting the appropriate cylinder for CRF testing. UCS tests for CRF are typically conducted with 15 cm x 30 cm sample cylinders, however depending on the preparation and testing of the CRF sample the resultant UCS may not be representative of the in-stope fill. The authors investigated whether there was a better way of relating the material properties of in-stope CRF to test results from standard samples. They measured the strength and elastic properties for CRF in sample cylinders measuring 15 cm x 30 cm and 46 cm x 91 cm. They found that a) the strength of a CRF sample is directly related to its density, b) the UCS (and modulus of elasticity) decreases as the size of the sample increase and c)that the indirect tensile strength of CRF is ~17% of the average UCS – which is significantly more than the 10% typically adopted for estimating the tensile strength for CRF in undercut spans. Sites should invest in these studies – there are millions of dollars to be saved by refining their understanding of paste performance.

Rock fill quality control 1

Tyler Emery PE , Josef Bourgeois , Joseph Seymour, David Sweet, PE and David Porter carefully studied the preparation of CRF samples in order to develop guidelines for QA/QC. They focused on batching and strength testing, and trialled multiple 6” cylinder preparation methods to see which best correlates to the in-situ strength of CRF with the least operator bias. The methods included ASTM C31, ASTM C1435 and the drop hammer compaction method. They concluded that a drop hammer compaction test produced the most consistent test cylinder with the least variation in testing results. However, they did note that more work needs to be done to develop and mature the drop hammer test method before it can be adopted. This team really opened my eyes to what a government OHS outfit could be doing to support industry.

Rock fill quality control 2

GHADA RAFRAF , Tikou Belem , Louis-Philippe Gélinas, ing. , Hatem Mrad and Abdelkader Krichen developed a thorough quality control procedure for CRF mixtures with a view to improve the ability to predict their compressive strength. CRF requires intricate preparation procedures, and there is a wide variety in CRF composition which makes it difficult to settle on a single method for testing the strength of CRF. The lack of a systematic method has provided challenges for optimisation, however the methodology developed by the team improves the prediction model by considering curing time, binder ratio, particle size distribution, water to cement ratio, binder type and porosity to accurately predict the strengths of cemented rockfill. Some of their findings are quite interesting – for example, a water : cement ratio of 1.2 is typically given as an industry-recommended range for CRF, however the study suggests that a range of 0.7 to 1 could be beneficial.

Paste at high and low temperatures

Arctic backfill 1

Fatemeh Tavanaei Sereshgi , Mehrdad Kermani , Gongda Lu , Agus Sasmito , Alessandro Navarra and Ferri Hassani looked at arctic backfill. The application they were considering excluded the use of binder because of the transport costs and the adverse effects of low temperature on cementation. Instead, they are relying on the freezing effect of water. They performed a numerical simulation to investigate the relation between temperature and ice saturation over 710 days. Although the case study was a success, they found that after 200 days only half the water was frozen which indicates the significance of considering the ice saturation parameter alongside temperature evolution.

Arctic backfill 2

Khalil Hashem, Agus Sasmito , Laxmi Sushama , Ferri Hassani and Mehrdad Kermani investigated the surface disposal of frozen non-cemented paste tailings. This may be more difficult for the WA readers to comprehend, but their study suggests that they can achieve an enhanced conduction medium for frozen paste tailings compared with dry porous tailings. They noted that the ambient temperature has the most influence on the strength characteristics, and that decreasing temperature can results in a higher strength and potentially more ductile mix than alternative paste. They concluded that using 30% water content resulted in enhanced mechanical characterstics when compared to 20% water content, especially at a lower temperature.

Paste at elevated temperatures

Yuye Tan, Yuchao Deng, Davide Elmo, Fenghao Zhu, Jiazhao Chen and Weidong Song have noted that as mines trend deeper the temperature will increase which will have significant impact on the hydration reaction rate of paste backfill, affecting both the physical and mechanical properties. The authors focused on characterising the early curing stage of paste at elevated temperatures, and found that an increase in temperature leads to decreased porosity, decreased water content, and an increase in adsorbed water and pore water content. This increases the degree of hydration such that the hydration products form a denser structure – which leads to increased strength. Scanning electron microscope visuals indicates that high temperature curing results in more well-defined crystal morphologies of hydration products within the backfill, with a denser pore structure and smaller pore size. Also, in addition to the higher temperature enhancing the early strength of paste, they noted that at increased temperatures the uniaxial failure mode of paste transitions from shear failure to tensile failure.

Admixtures, alternatives and impurities

Effect of phyllosilicates

Ikram Elkhoumsi , Tikou Belem and Mostafa Benzaazoua investigated the effect of phyllosilicates (i.e. muscovite) on binder hydration, and the resulting effect on the hardening process of cemented paste backfills. Phyllosilicates in paste have long been recognised for their impact in reducing strength, and in order to deepen the understanding, the authors systematically investigated the mechanical and hydrogeochemical response of paste affected by phyllosilicates during both the mixing and hardening phases. They found that there is a significant presence of O-H bonding related to absorbed water by muscovite which impacts the cement hydration and hardening processes.

Effect of pyrrhotite

Ian Bedard , Kristie Tarr , Kathryn Dambremont and Rory Cameron , the team from CanmetMINING, looked at the impact of pyrrhotite on the performance of paste. Pryrrhotite can cause acid mine drainage if stored on the surface, but can also cause strength degradation if it is excessively concentrated in underground backfill. CanmetMINING have developed a novel stirred-tank bioleaching process for recovering nickel and cobalt that incorporates both partial neutralisation and iron removal in the bioleaching circuit, but the resulting residue contains a significant proportion of jarosite which can be problematic for long-term disposal. The team’s paper reports on the research designed to evaluate different options for disposal of the high jarosite residue into a suitable backfill material. From this initial study there appears to be a marked effect on strength; generally the UCS reduces dramatically in strength, although it was noted that under certain conditions there can be an increase in UCS. Hopefully a good outcome can be achieved for the team.

Steel-making waste as a binder

Noureddine Ouffa , Tikou Belem , Romain TRAUCHESSEC , Andre Lecomte and Mostafa Benzaazoua investigated the feasibility of using electrical arc furnace slag and circulating dry scrubber dust as a backfill binder. This research was motivated out of the high cost of Portland cement, and the fact that there is an opportunity to use this dust as a waste product from the local steel-making industry. The team demonstrated the feasibility of completely replacing Portland cement without compromising the UCS at 28 days. In addition to the lower cost and reduced carbon footprint the dust encourages the recycling of metallurgical waste within the mining industry.

Low carbon binder alternative

Nikolas Romaniuk, Lucas McFarlane and Narain Hariharan, Ph.D., P.E. developed a low carbon binder alternative. As they report, traditional binders can be responsible for ~70% of the greenhouse gas emissions emanating from the entire backfill process, and so the authors developed a lime-based binder for mine backfill that can replace up to 50% of the cement with no compromise in long-term performance. This reduces the greenhouse gas footprint by up to 75% in comparison with traditional cement. Their product is all the more interesting because the co-products traditionally used to reduced the greenhouse gas footprint of mine backfill (i.e. fly ash and slag) will dwindle in supply as there are changes in technology and increased competition for SCMs.

Lightweight paste

Manohar and Choudhary presented an interesting paper which explored the opportunity of using a synthetic lightweight aggregate in a backfill material. Typically sand or tailings is used, but due to the growing demand and slow rate of replacement there has been an alternative search for backfill feedstocks. The authors investigated a combination of fly ash and HDPE in a ratio of 80:20 to create a lightweight aggregate which they used in backfill. The product which they created had many advantages. It had an exceptionally high slake durability index, a low specific gravity (for easy transport at low pressure), an enhanced grain size distribution (similar to sand, providing good shear strength), a sand-like morphology, and a permeability 25x higher than pure fly ash. It therefore is ideally suited for a feedstock in a hydraulic backfill material.

There is currently a lot of old polyethylene pipe sitting around mine sites, and at least in WA the transport costs pose a challenge to the idea of shredding and reprocessing the pellets to an acceptable standard to use in new polyethylene. This could be a solution.

Amazing potential of admixtures

Sara Arcila Gut , Frederic Beland and Fabian Erismann compiled a paper which explored the ability of admixtures to significantly reduce the cost of backfill (for which they said binder accounts for 75-80% of the total cost) and CO2 emissions. The case study which they presented showed that 1 kg of admixture could replace a whopping 10-20 kg of cement. The increase in the solids content was achieved by using a water-reducing admixture which increased the strength of the paste, thereby allowing a reduction in the cement content.

A pulp additive

Keith Gourlay , Mehrdad Kermani , Agus Sasmito , Gurminder Minhas and Ferri Hassani provided the audience with the very interesting idea of using a “nano-fibrillated cellulose” derived from wood pulp as an additive for cemented paste backfill. What they found was that the mechanical performance of backfill material can be notable enhanced by incorporating very low amounts of the cellulose – even the addition of 0.1 wt% of the nano-fibrillated cellulose could significantly accelerate the development of strength. This additive could be used to reduce the cement content, and it is likely that the cost of this addition would be offset by efficiencies in strength gains.

Paste system design practices

Borehole best practice

Paul Carmichael , Leslie Correia , Ryan Veenstra and Glenn MacGregor provided a “how-to” for those designing and specifying surface boreholes. Their paper was motivated by the fact that surface boreholes represent the greatest cost and the greatest risk to the paste reticulation system. I’d highly recommend this primer to anyone who is involved with a new surface borehole, but as a summary they recommend that a) casing should be installed in boreholes, b) the dip angle should ~70 degrees (to improve start up), c) grouted casing is an ideal starting point, but there should be a serious thought to suspended casing and d) ceramic lining can be justified, depending on the life of mine.

The cause of poor bin performance

Jamil Bundalli and Derek Vaile provided the audience with a good overview of what is required for good hopper performance. What they mentioned was that good bin design centres on choosing the best geometry for the bin using the flow materials of the stored property. Ideally, a correctly designed storage bin would self-empty, even with the feeder removed, with only the aid of gravity. The authors then went on to explain that feeders can be a significant culprit in creating plugging problems – even if the bin has the correct geometry. This is because conventional feeders have a tendency to compact the stored material, and with many cohesive bulk solids, when they are compacted they gain strength very quickly – and the more shear strength that a bulk solids has, the wider the opening over which it can bridge. Once it is compacted enough, a cohesive bulk solid will develop the strength to bridge over the feeder. Additionally, conventional feeders will also have a tendency to withdraw material selectively from the bin’s discharge outlet. An uneven discharge promotes a first-in, last-out discharge pattern which is problematic because most cohesive bulk solids will not reliably discharge in a first-in last-out discharge pattern. This presentation was a great primer for those facing bulk material handling issues.

Disc filter selection

Jurgen Hahn provided a useful primer for those who might be looking into sizing a disc filter. The key highlights from his presentation are that:

a)?????? The sizing sample must be representative

b)????? The filter sizing should include a good safety margin to ensure that the equipment fulfills the process guarantee, even if/when the plant and filter feed experiences variation in the feed

c)?????? If there are CAPEX constraints there should be an alternative plan – so that a moderate change can be made to the equipment / filters without full replacement

Also, a shout out to Jurgen for so actively supporting the industry. I saw him at the ACG Australian Centre for Geomechanics Paste 24 conference, the Minefill Symposium Minefill 24 conference, and the Gecamin Tailings 24 conference all in the space of a few weeks!

Liquefaction potential

Mamadou Fall and Imad Alainachi have focussed on the fact that mining operations are increasingly moving to greater depths (and volumes) which lead to more severe and frequent cyclic loading events. The authors designed a “shaking table” apparatus to assess the liquefaction potential of hydrating paste during the cycling loading at early ages. They developed an interesting apparatus which used a flexible “laminar shear box” and explored the impact of pore water.? What they found was that sulphate ions diminish liquefaction resistance;? at 2.5 h paste is susceptibility to liequafacion under cyclic loading, whereas after 4 hours there is real resistance, and after 10 hours cyclic loading has essentially minimal impact. Sulphate was found to notable increase susceptibility to liquefaction – paste at 4 hours (with sulphate) was susceptible to liquefaction, whilst sulphate-free samples were completely resistant. This is because the cement hydration decreases in the presence of sulphates. This is vital info for those who are scoping out the feasibility of paste systems.

Predicting paste strength 1

Matt Helinski is something of a local figurehead – most of the sites I have worked at seem to have been shaped by Matt H in some way (and usually the other associated Matts R and D). At this conference, Matt investigated the limit equilibrium solutions which have been put forward by Mitchel and Roettger, and are frequently used by paste people to specify the required backfill strengths for horizontal exposures. As Matt points out, the Mitchell and Roettger models are useful for small spans, but don’t do well with ground support; when there is ground support they underestimate dilution in larger underhand stoping applications, and Matt has presented two new analytical models for horizontal exposure behaviour. The first is a modification of Voussoir’s beam theory and relates to depth of overbreak (or dilution) to backfill strength, whilst the second provides a model for estimating the strength below which catastrophic uncontrolled caving would occur. What is interesting is that Matt’s analytical models suggest that horizontal exposures are largely independent of tensile strength. He notes that flexure during horizontal exposures is not a destabilising mechanism, but that crushing is the failure mechanism for fill immediately overlying a horizontal exposure. Matt’s modified version of the Voussoir beam model indicates that horizontal exposure stability is dictated by compressive (rather than tensile) stress. For all those that are involved in undertaking feasibility studies for new paste fill systems, this paper is certainly worth reading. For those operating paste systems, there is potentially huge cement/time savings that may be available by revisiting the underlying assumptions/calculations.

Predicting paste strength 2

Murray Grabinsky and Ben Thompson have endeavoured to improve upon the Mitchell method which many practitioners use to assess backfill strength requirements. As reported elsewhere, one of the issues with Mitchell’s method is that it frequently overstates the strength required for a stable undercut. The authors performed a numerical investigation to demonstrate that Mitchell’s method only captures the first stage of a stable progressive failure. As the L/D ratio increases from 1, the results from the numerical model progressively diverge, but in all cases the numerical model returned lower strength requirements, consistent with the published case histories. Their modelling results indicates that flexure is always the critical failure mode, and that the sidewall sliding and tensile caving failure modes postulated by Mitchell do not appear to be the case.

Predicting paste strength 3

Mariem Amri, Tikou Belem , Louis-Philippe Gélinas, ing. , Hatem Mrad and Faouzi Masmoudi have put into practice what has surely been on many paste-practitioner’s mind; they have developed an AI model to predict the UCS of cemented paste based on the test results of over 10,050 test specimens. They used a GBR model, which proved itself with a highly accurate correlation R coefficient of 0.97, and as reported elsewhere in this text, implemented a web application. The mining industry spends a lot of effort on spin which advocates their “innovation”, however this is a breath of fresh air. Hopefully similar reasoning can be extended to detecting anomalies like seismic events and faults in mechanical systems.

Pressure loss in paste with coarse aggregate

Yin Shenghua, Yan Zepeng, Chen Dapeng, Chen Junwei, Zhang Ming and Yang Chun had me very excited; this team developed a model for calculating the transport resistance of coarse aggregate paste based on volume concentration, bulk density, and the water : cement ratio. They validated the formula using a Multiphysics numerical simulation and found that the error was less than 8% - far more accurate than other methods for this application that may be used on a desktop level. What’s more, is that they were able to optimise the parameters for pipeline transportation, and the results are not necessarily what you would expect. This is huge news for those involving in planning out new PAF/CRF systems. Pump & Flow will be working on this to validate their findings using our pipe loop.

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