Psychoanalysis and Literature: Tensions Between Interiority and External Forces

ABSTRACT

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This article presents a comparative analysis of the novels Senhora (1875) by José de Alencar, a representative work of Brazilian Romanticism, and O Corti?o (1890) by Aluísio Azevedo, a landmark of Brazilian Naturalism, from the perspective of Freudian psychoanalysis, which was in its formative stages during this period. The objective is to examine how transformations in the representation of the subject between these two literary movements dialogue with the emergence and development of seminal psychoanalytic concepts, their evolution, and contemporary challenges. In Senhora, the protagonist embodies the internal psychological conflicts characteristic of Romanticism, expressing emotional tensions through extreme behaviors and theatricality, which can be interpreted considering the hysterical symptoms that influenced the invention of psychoanalysis. In contrast, O Corti?o portrays its characters as products of social and biological determinism, governed by instinctual drives and shaped by a degraded environment, reflecting the objectivity and materialism central to Naturalism. The comparison between the two works reveals a shift from the Romantic idealization of subjectivity - echoing the cultural atmosphere of Freud’s 19th-century Vienna - to the Naturalist critique that underscores the role of modernity and environmental forces in shaping human behavior. In light of psychoanalytic theory, it becomes evident how these literary representations anticipate contemporary dilemmas, suggesting a psychoanalysis that reflects 21st-century social and cultural transformations while offering fertile ground for understanding the formation and evolution of new subjectivities.

Keywords: Psychoanalysis; Brazilian Literature; Romanticism; Naturalism; Contemporary Literature.

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Introduction

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Literature as an artistic expression of a specific historical period reflects not only the social and cultural concerns of its time but also transformations in the perception of the subject and human subjectivity (Candido, 2006; Schwarz, 2000). In 19th-century Brazil, the transition from Romanticism to Naturalism marks a significant shift in how individuals and their relationship with the world were represented: while Romanticism emphasized idealized subjectivity and inner emotions (Moisés, 1992), Naturalism began to investigate humans as products of their environment and external forces (Bosi, 2006).

Based on this transition, this article proposes a comparative analysis of Senhora (1875) by José de Alencar and O Corti?o (1890) by Aluísio Azevedo through the lens of Freudian psychoanalysis. These works were chosen for their contrasting representations of the subject: in Senhora, the protagonist Aurélia Camargo expresses internal conflicts that can be interpreted in light of hysteria and repression, anticipating discussions Freud (1905) would later develop about the unconscious (Birman, 2001). Conversely, O Corti?o presents characters whose behaviors are determined by material conditions and instinctual drives, aligning with the biological and social determinism characteristic of Naturalism (Zola, 1880; Schwarz, 2000).

This article investigates how these differing literary conceptions interact with the theoretical foundations of psychoanalysis, a science emerging during this period amidst the cultural and scientific shifts of modernity (Gay, 1989). Freud (1915), by exploring the dynamics of the unconscious, instincts, and repression, introduced a new framework for understanding human conflicts (Laplanche and Pontalis, 1992), which, to some extent, resonates with the tensions observed in the literature of this period.

The goal of this article is to conduct a comparative analysis of the two works, identifying how the construction of characters in Senhora and O Corti?o reflects distinct yet complementary conceptions of humanity: the focus on internal psychological conflicts in Romanticism versus the social and environmental determinism of Naturalism (Candido, 2006; Bosi, 2006). By exploring this polarization, the article seeks to demonstrate how these literary representations anticipate central debates in psychoanalysis, such as the concepts of hysteria, repression, instincts, and the tension between unconscious desires and external forces (Freud, 1920; Roudinesco, 2000). Simultaneously, it paves the way for thinking about more integrated forms of understanding the modes of subjectivation that characterize contemporary complexity.

The methodology employed consists of a comparative and interpretive analysis of the two works, using Freudian concepts as the theoretical foundation, such as the unconscious, internal conflicts, hysterical symptoms, and the influence of the external environment on the formation of the subject (Freud, 1900; Birman, 2001). To understand how these differences dialogue with Freudian psychoanalytic principles, the analysis considers two central dimensions: the internal psychic realm and external forces. In this examination, concepts such as the life drive (Eros) and the death drive (Thanatos) - which, according to Freud (1920), operate in the psyche and manifest rawly in contexts of social and material degradation - are explored. The life drive, represented by the pursuit of connection and self-preservation, and the death drive, associated with destruction and violence, are central to Freud’s Beyond the Pleasure Principle (Freud, 1920) and resonate with the portrayals of characters in O Corti?o and their instinctive actions within an oppressive environment.

The analysis of the two works is complemented by historical and theoretical contextualization, which considers the cultural and scientific scenario of the late 19th century. This period marks the transition from the idealist view of the subject, typical of Romanticism, to the materialist and deterministic perspective that gained prominence in Naturalism (Candido, 2006; Schwarz, 2000). The rise of scientific currents such as biological determinism and Darwinian evolutionary theories directly influenced Naturalist literature (Hauser, 1982; Zola, 1880). This cultural and social transformation provides a relevant backdrop for understanding the tensions depicted in the works, as well as the emergence of Freudian psychoanalysis, which sought to integrate the individual’s internal conflicts with external environmental influences (Birman, 2001; Freud, 1930).

Furthermore, the analysis establishes a theoretical dialogue between literature and psychoanalysis, drawing on authors such as Freud, Roudinesco, Birman, Candido, and Schwarz, who provide a critical framework for linking the literary dilemmas of the 19th century with the foundations of psychoanalysis. Freud (1900), in The Interpretation of Dreams, emphasizes the unconscious’s manifestation through symbols and narratives, offering a theoretical parallel for analyzing the internal conflicts and hysterical symptoms expressed by Aurélia Camargo, the protagonist of Senhora. Roudinesco (2000), in turn, highlights how psychoanalysis, emerging in the contemporary context, dialogues with the social and cultural changes of its time, an essential perspective for articulating literary criticism and Freudian thought. Candido (2006) and Schwarz (2000) provide a critical lens on Brazilian Romanticism and Naturalism, elucidating how the two movements explore, respectively, introspective subjectivity and the determinist influence of the environment, directly engaging with Freudian paradigms.

The investigation of these literary representations will demonstrate how Senhora and O Corti?o anticipate central psychoanalytic questions, addressing repression, the symbolic manifestation of the unconscious, and the duality between drives and civilization. Repression, a central process in the formation of neurotic symptoms, resonates with Aurélia’s emotional conflicts, which are expressed through extreme behaviors and theatricality. In O Corti?o, on the other hand, the absence of repression gives way to the surrender to drives, revealing the critique of social and biological determinism that shapes the dehumanization of its characters (Freud, 1895; Zola, 1880).

Finally, the article explores the contemporary relevance of these works, reflecting on how representations of subjectivity and deterministic forces in the environment continue to dialogue with the dilemmas faced by psychoanalysis today. The study highlights the literary contribution to understanding the transformations of subjectivity and the new forms of psychic suffering that emerge in modernity. Birman (2001) and Bauman (2001), when reflecting on contemporary anxieties and “liquid modernity”. emphasize how contemporary subjectivity is marked by fragmentation and external pressures, elements that find parallels in the analyzed works. Contemporary psychoanalytic practice, in addressing the anxieties of the contemporary subject, finds in these narratives fertile ground for investigating the tensions that shape the human psyche, reaffirming literature as a privileged space to reflect on the challenges of the individual in an ever-changing society.

Thus, the articulation between literature and psychoanalysis seeks to understand how these authors, in distinct ways, reflect the anxieties of the 19th century, as well as the existential dilemmas that Freud would theoretically systematize during the transition from a patriarchal and vertical society to one marked by science and immanence (Gay, 1989; Laplanche and Pontalis, 1992).

To achieve these objectives, the article is organized into main sections. The first section examines Romanticism and its focus on interiority, highlighting how the heightened subjectivity and emotional conflicts in Senhora resonate with psychoanalytic concepts of repression and hysteria. The analysis then shifts to Naturalism, exploring how O Corti?o portrays human beings through the lens of biological and social determinism, emphasizing the influence of the environment and instinctual drives on the characters. The third section synthesizes these perspectives, contrasting Romantic introspection with Naturalist exteriority, and demonstrating how both align with Freudian psychoanalysis. The fourth section broadens this dialogue, connecting the tensions depicted in these novels to contemporary psychoanalytic debates, such as collective trauma and the dilemmas of liquid modernity. Next, the fifth section offers metapsychological considerations, showing how contemporary literature updates and reconfigures Freudian foundations. Finally, the concluding section discusses the practical implications of this interdisciplinary approach, reflecting on the significance of literature for understanding and addressing the evolving forms of psychic suffering in the contemporary world.

In setting the stage for a comparative analysis of Senhora and O Corti?o, the introduction underscores the divergent yet complementary perspectives of Romanticism and Naturalism in shaping the representation of the human subject. This framework paves the way for an in-depth exploration of Romanticism’s introspective focus on subjectivity, particularly in José de Alencar’s Senhora, where the internal psychological conflicts of the protagonist reflect the movement’s idealized emotional world. By examining how internal struggles manifest symbolically and behaviorally, the subsequent section situates Romantic subjectivity within the nascent psychoanalytic theories of the unconscious and repression.

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Romanticism and Interiority

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Brazilian Romanticism, consolidated in the first half of the 19th century, is characterized by the valorization of subjectivity, emotionalism, and an idealized vision of reality (Candido, 2006; Moisés, 1992). In this literary movement, human emotions - such as love, passion, suffering, and heroism - take center stage, reflecting a pursuit of perfection and escapism in response to the limitations of the real world (Bosi, 2006). The female figure, often idealized, assumes a symbolic role, representing purity, idealized and unattainable love, while also serving as a projection of the internal conflicts of male characters, as analyzed by Schwarz (2000) when discussing stereotyped and patriarchal roles in Brazilian Romantic novels.

Among the prominent representatives of this movement, José de Alencar stands out, with his novel Senhora (1875) being a prime example of the emotional and psychological duality present in Romanticism (Candido, 2006; Coutinho, 2012). The novel features Aurélia Camargo, one of the most complex female characters in Brazilian literature of the period, embodying simultaneously the role of a passionate yet resentful woman, both victim and agent of her own destiny (Moisés, 1992).

After inheriting a fortune, Aurélia subverts social conventions by “purchasing” a marriage to her former lover, Fernando Seixas, who had previously rejected her for financial reasons. The plot, marked by power games and emotional control, reveals a clash between idealized love and the deep wounds caused by rejection (Carvalho, 1993). Aurélia’s gesture, laden with irony and theatricality, functions as a symbolic act of affirmation and revenge, while also exposing the fragility of social and emotional relationships in 19th-century Brazil.

Oscillating between moments of tenderness and generosity and instances of cold calculation and theatricality, Aurélia expresses her internal struggle between repressed passion and the desire for revenge. Her emotional duality and psychological complexity, coupled with the intensity of her emotions, provide fertile ground for analysis through the lens of emerging Freudian psychoanalysis, particularly in relation to hysterical symptoms (Birman, 2001; Freud, 1905).

Hysteria, as later described by Freud (1895), is linked to repressed internal conflicts that manifest as exaggerated or “theatrical” symptoms (Laplanche & Pontalis, 1992). Aurélia, while striving to control her circumstances and assert her financial independence, displays extreme and contradictory behaviors that reveal an unconscious in conflict (Birman, 2001). Her theatricality, calculated gestures, and oscillation between control and emotional outbursts can be interpreted as symbolic expressions of psychic tensions, which, within the Romantic context, are manifested through an idealized vision of love and the female figure (Roudinesco, 2000; Bosi, 2006).

Thus, Senhora offers a rich portrayal of Romantic subjectivity, delving into the emotional and psychological complexities of its protagonist within a context of social and emotional repression. This literary exploration anticipates, to some extent, Freudian debates on the unconscious, repressed desires, and hysterical symptoms, establishing a bridge between the Romantic construction of the subject and the later developments of psychoanalysis (Freud, 1920; Birman, 2001; Roudinesco, 2000). The analysis of Aurélia Camargo demonstrates how Romantic literature, by examining emotional contradictions and psychic conflicts, contributes to understanding the internal tensions that would later be theorized by psychoanalysis.

While Senhora highlights the Romantic focus on internal conflicts and idealized emotions, O Corti?o shifts the literary lens outward, prioritizing the deterministic influence of external forces such as environment, biology, and social conditions. This transition from introspection to objectivity reflects the broader cultural and scientific changes of the 19th century, including the influence of Darwinian evolutionism and materialist thought. In contrast to Romanticism’s idealized representation of subjectivity, Naturalism, as explored in O Corti?o, exposes how primal instincts and oppressive environments shape human behavior. This movement from the internal to the external sets the stage for a deeper psychoanalytic analysis of how drives and environmental determinism intersect to form a more mechanistic vision of humanity.

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Naturalism and Exteriority

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Emerging in the late 19th century as a more radical offshoot of Realism, Naturalism, particularly in Brazil, sought to reflect a materialist and deterministic view of humanity, informed by the scientific discoveries of the time, such as Darwin’s theory of evolution and Zola’s social determinism (1880). Naturalist writers believed that human behavior was conditioned by biological, hereditary, and environmental factors, prioritizing objectivity and scientific observation in the construction of literary narratives (Nogueira, 1997; Hauser, 1982). In this context, individuals ceased to be represented as agents of their own choices and were instead depicted as products of their environment and instinctual drives, a perspective resonant with the positivist and materialist currents of the period (Bosi, 2006; Candido, 2006).

Among the key representatives of Brazilian Naturalism, Aluísio Azevedo stands out, especially with O Corti?o (1890), considered one of the greatest examples of the movement in national literature (Bosi, 2006; Coutinho, 2012). The novel offers a scathing critique of late 19th-century Brazilian society, exploring themes such as moral degradation, the miserable conditions of the lower classes, and the animalization of human beings within an oppressive environment (Schwarz, 2000; Gomes, 2010).

The narrative of O Corti?o revolves around a physical space - the tenement (corti?o) - which acts as a collective character, symbolizing the overwhelming power of the environment over individuals (Candido, 2006). The degraded, unsanitary, and promiscuous setting directly influences the characters’ behaviors, portraying them as dominated by basic instincts such as sexuality, greed, and violence (Zola, 1880; Coutinho, 2012). In this context, there is a clear dehumanization of individuals: their actions are determined by external forces (poverty and social environment) and internal drives (biological and hereditary instincts), stripping them of autonomy and deepening the Naturalist critique of subjectivity (Schwarz, 2000; Nogueira, 1997).

This oppressive environment resonates with Winnicott’s (1960) later concept of the “facilitating environment”, which emphasizes how external conditions play a decisive role in an individual’s emotional development and psychic stability. Unlike the supportive environments that foster integration and emotional security, the corti?o functions as a destabilizing force, exacerbating primal drives and dehumanizing its inhabitants. By depicting a space that denies any possibility of nurturing or coherence, Azevedo’s Naturalist vision aligns with psychoanalytic concerns regarding the impact of adverse environmental conditions on subjectivity.

The protagonist Jo?o Rom?o, an ambitious and unscrupulous Portuguese immigrant, personifies the critique of extreme materialism (Candido, 2006; Bosi, 2006). His relentless pursuit of profit leads him down a path of brutality and inhumanity, revealing how the desire for social ascension is connected to predatory and instinctual behaviors. Parallel characters such as Bertoleza, Jer?nimo, and Rita Baiana illustrate different facets of the oppressive environment: submission, survival struggles, and surrender to basic impulses, painting a cruel and objective portrait of Brazilian reality (Gomes, 2010; Nogueira, 1997).

Secondary characters like Rita Baiana and Bertoleza in O Corti?o also deepen the understanding of Naturalism’s deterministic critique. Rita Baiana, with her exuberance and sensuality, embodies the dominance of instinctual drives and the centrality of sexuality in human behavior. She disrupts moral conventions, representing the body and desire as primary, uncontrollable forces. Rita is portrayed in an almost animalistic manner, especially in descriptions of her dances and her irresistible effect on men, which leads to conflicts and ruptures. From a psychoanalytic perspective, Rita Baiana reflects the raw manifestation of the life drive (Eros) while exposing the irrational and instinctual nature of desire. Her presence underscores the animalization of human relationships in the oppressive tenement setting, where drives and external forces suppress any possibility of conscious control or emotional idealization, contrasting with Aurélia’s calculated theatricality in Senhora.

On the other hand, Bertoleza represents a complementary aspect of Naturalism’s social critique: submission and sacrifice under economic and social forces. Enslaved and exploited by Jo?o Rom?o, Bertoleza becomes a symbol of alienation and dehumanization, her condition a direct result of the brutal exploitation promoted by her environment. The relationship between Jo?o Rom?o and Bertoleza is marked by violence and the absence of genuine affection, reducing her to a mere object molded by external circumstances. Her tragic death at the novel’s conclusion serves as the inevitable outcome of a life dominated by labor, exhaustion, and exploitation. From a Freudian perspective, Bertoleza’s trajectory aligns with the death drive (Thanatos), symbolizing destruction and decay when a subject is stripped of autonomy and consumed by external pressures.

The contrast between these secondary characters - Rita Baiana, Bertoleza, and Fernando Seixas from Senhora - highlights the chasm between Romanticism and Naturalism. In Senhora, Fernando Seixas still embodies an internal conflict marked by reflection and emotional struggle, suggesting the possibility of redemption or transformation within the internal realm. In contrast, in O Corti?o, both Rita Baiana and Bertoleza are absorbed by external determinism and instinctual drives, leaving no room for subjective introspection.

This comparison reveals how Romanticism and Naturalism depict the subject in opposing ways. In Romanticism, Fernando Seixas, despite his moral weakness, retains a rich internal dimension defined by repressed desires and subjective drama. In Naturalism, however, Rita Baiana and Bertoleza are reduced to deterministic forces - animality, biological impulses, and environmental pressure - with no possibility of conscious transformation.

Thus, by exploring secondary characters like Fernando Seixas, Rita Baiana, and Bertoleza, the analysis expands the understanding of the essential differences between Romanticism and Naturalism. While Romanticism delves into the interior subjectivity and emotional dilemmas of the individual, Naturalism exposes the external forces and instinctual drives that alienate and dehumanize the human being. This not only enriches the comparison between Senhora and O Corti?o but also enables a psychoanalytic reading that highlights how different literary representations of the subject anticipate fundamental debates in Freudian psychoanalysis, such as the tensions between drive and repression and between the unconscious and the external environment.

The social determinism and Darwinian evolutionism present in O Corti?o contrast sharply with the exacerbated subjectivity of Romanticism. While Senhora focuses on internal conflicts and emotional expression, O Corti?o portrays characters shaped by external factors and unconscious impulses, approaching a mechanistic view of humanity (Freud, 1920; Schwarz, 2000). From a Freudian perspective, the instinctual drives described in O Corti?o -especially those related to sexuality and aggression - anticipate the concept of drives (Eros and Thanatos), while the lack of conscious control reflects the domination of the primitive unconscious (Freud, 1905; Birman, 2001).

In this way, O Corti?o not only criticizes the Brazilian society of its time but also questions the notion of free will and subjectivity, reducing human behavior to the sum of biological and social factors (Zola, 1880; Gomes, 2010). This perspective resonates with psychoanalytic thought, as it exposes the tension between instinctual drives and the external environment, highlighting the inevitability of the forces that shape the subject (Freud, 1920; Roudinesco, 2000). The oppressive environment, much like Freud’s drives, paints a portrait of dehumanization and instinctual determinism, anticipating reflections on the role of the unconscious and drives in the constitution of human subjectivity.

The examination of Senhora and O Corti?o reveals two contrasting yet intertwined literary approaches to human subjectivity: the Romantic focus on interiority and the Naturalist emphasis on exteriority. However, beneath this dichotomy lies a deeper psychoanalytic dialogue that integrates these seemingly opposing forces. Freud’s metapsychology, by exploring both internal unconscious processes and the impact of external pressures, serves as a bridge between Romantic introspection and Naturalist determinism. The subsequent section will synthesize these perspectives, highlighting how both works reflect the complex interplay between psychic interiority and environmental forces in shaping human experience.

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Individual-Interiority vis-à-vis Subject-Exteriority

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Despite their differences, it is possible to identify points of intersection between the two works regarding how psychic symptoms and external factors influencing the characters’ agency are represented. As observed in more contemporary studies - such as those in the social sciences by Bourdieu (1984) and Giddens (1984) - Freud (1920), in developing psychoanalysis, already proposes a synthesis between two perspectives: the analysis of the individual unconscious, with its desires and repressions, and the inevitable influence of the social and cultural environment on the formation of subjectivity (Roudinesco, 2000). In positioning himself between these approaches, Freud emerges as a “mediator”, suggesting an integrative view of the internal world and external forces that shape human behavior (Birman, 2001; Roudinesco, 2000). Freud thus recognizes both the intrapsychic conflicts of the unconscious and the social and cultural pressures acting upon the subject (Freud, 1920; Gay, 1989).

The Freudian unconscious, as a realm of repressions and drives, aligns with the Romantic subjectivity that prioritizes internal desires and repressed emotions. At the same time, Freud’s emphasis on instinct and materialist determinism resonates with Naturalist concerns, which expose how external forces reduce individuals to passive agents of their circumstances (Schwarz, 2000; Bosi, 2006). In this sense, Freud (1920) constructs an integrative metapsychology that seeks to reconcile these two dimensions: the human being is simultaneously driven by internal impulses and conditioned by external factors (Freud, 1920; Birman, 2001).

Table 1 synthesizes the comparative analysis between the Romantic focus on interiority and the Naturalist focus on external forces, correlating the key literary aspects of each movement with relevant psychoanalytic concepts.

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This comparison reveals how Romanticism and Naturalism represent the subject through opposing lenses. Romanticism explores the internal world of subjectivity, focusing on emotional conflicts and repressed desires, while Naturalism shifts attention to the external forces - biological and environmental - that dominate human behavior.

From a psychoanalytic perspective, this dichotomy reflects Freud’s theoretical synthesis of the internal and external dimensions shaping the subject. While Romanticism mirrors Freud’s early emphasis on the unconscious and repression, Naturalism anticipates his later explorations of the drives (Eros and Thanatos) and environmental determinism, highlighting the tension between instinctual impulses and external pressures in the formation of human subjectivity (Birman, 2001; Gomes, 2010).

By juxtaposing Romanticism’s focus on individual psychic conflicts with Naturalism’s emphasis on environmental determinism, it becomes evident that Senhora and O Corti?o reflect two essential dimensions of human subjectivity. This duality resonates not only with Freud’s foundational theories but also with contemporary psychoanalysis, which grapples with contemporary dilemmas of identity, trauma, and external pressures. The following section explores how these 19th-century literary representations anticipate and inform current psychoanalytic debates, particularly in understanding new forms of suffering, collective traumas, and fragmented subjectivities in an increasingly complex and globalized world.

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Relationships with Contemporary Psychoanalysis

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Although Senhora (1875) and O Corti?o (1890) belong to the 19th century, both works remain relevant to issues faced by contemporary psychoanalysis, both theoretically and clinically. Literature, as a symbolic construction, can be viewed as a mirror of its time, revealing anxieties, desires, and psychic tensions that transcend historical and cultural boundaries (Candido, 2006; Schwarz, 2000).

Through Freud’s concept of “Civilization and Its Discontents” (1930), contemporary psychoanalysis expands its scope to address collective traumas and the impact of systemic inequalities (Roudinesco, 2000). This reflection is particularly pertinent in today’s world, marked by a transition to a multipolar order, where diverse cultures and conflicting values shape identities and subjectivities in increasingly complex ways (Bauman, 2001; Birman, 2001).

In this light, the dichotomy between Romanticism and Naturalism mirrors contemporary transitions in liquid modernity (Bauman, 2001), where the certainties of the past give way to emotional, economic, and social instability. Aurélia, in Senhora, represents the Romantic individual struggling with idealizations and the failure of ideals, while the characters in O Corti?o are entirely subjected to a degrading environment. These extremes of representation resonate with contemporary psychoanalytic dilemmas, which require psychoanalysts to address the anxieties of the contemporary subject - often torn between the desire for autonomy and the pressures of a hyperconnected, fragmented world (Bauman, 2001; Roudinesco, 2000).

The Freudian concepts of the life drive (Eros) and death drive (Thanatos) remain central to contemporary psychoanalytic thought (Freud, 1920). In O Corti?o, Azevedo highlights instinctual sexuality and destructive violence, offering a powerful literary representation of these primal forces. In contrast, Senhora, with its focus on emotional repression and frustrated desires, reveals the tension between the life drive - the yearning for love, connection, and fulfillment - and the death drive, represented by resentment, vengeance, and self-sabotage (Birman, 2001; Laplanche & Pontalis, 1992). By offering literary images of these forces, both novels enrich contemporary psychoanalytic perspectives on the conflicts between drive and repression in the contemporary subject.

Additionally, the analysis of these works highlights the relevance of literature to clinical psychoanalytic practice. Literary narratives, as metaphors for internal conflicts and drive dynamics, can enhance the therapeutic process, helping patients access their own psychic struggles symbolically (Freud, 1900; Birman, 2001). Aurélia’s emotional complexity and contradictions, alongside Jo?o Rom?o’s animalization as a product of his environment, illustrate how human subjectivity can be portrayed through extreme narratives, opening pathways for deep reflections on existential dilemmas.

Thus, literature - by traversing Romanticism and Naturalism and expanding into the contexts of the 21st century - offers psychoanalysis fertile ground to explore both the timeless conflicts of the psyche and the new forms of suffering imposed by contemporary life. While Freud (1905) emphasized the tension between drive and repression in the individual subject, contemporary literature broadens this horizon by incorporating issues such as collective trauma, fluid identity, and the impact of global crises on subjectivity (Roudinesco, 2000; Bauman, 2001; Morrison, 1987).

In this way, the analysis of Senhora and O Corti?o, when connected to contemporary contexts, reveals not only the relevance of psychoanalytic ideas but also their capacity for transformation and reinvention in addressing the complexities of the contemporary subject. By addressing themes of repression, drives, and environmental determinism, these works align with and expand upon Freudian concepts. However, as contemporary literature engages with new cultural, technological, and historical realities, it challenges psychoanalysis to rethink its theoretical foundations. The next section delves into these metapsychological considerations, exploring how contemporary literary narratives update and reconfigure Freud’s dynamic, economic, and topographical models of the psyche.

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Metapsychological Considerations

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The analysis of 21st-century contemporary novels offers a series of reflections that directly impact Freudian metapsychology, the theory Freud developed to understand psychic processes through its three fundamental perspectives: dynamic, economic, and topographical (Freud, 1915; Laplanche & Pontalis, 1992). These perspectives aim to explain how drives operate within the psyche, how libidinal energy is distributed, and how the psychic apparatus is structured (conscious, preconscious, and unconscious). Contemporary literature, by portraying the subject within a radically different cultural and historical context than that of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, tensions, expands, and updates Freudian metapsychology, offering new implications for its foundational structures (Birman, 2001; Roudinesco, 2000).

First, from the dynamic perspective, which explores the conflicts between drives and the ego’s defense mechanisms, contemporary literature both reflects and transforms this principle. Freud postulated the eternal conflict between the life drive (Eros) and the death drive (Thanatos) as structuring forces of the psyche (Freud, 1920). In 21st-century novels, this Freudian duality remains visible but assumes updated contours. Eros, associated with the search for affection, identity, and belonging, is disrupted by the fragmentation of interpersonal relationships and the difficulty in establishing meaningful bonds within a society marked by fluidity, technology, and rampant individualism (Bauman, 2001). In contrast, Thanatos manifests in increasingly complex ways, reflecting contemporary crises such as mental exhaustion, technological alienation, and self-destructive behaviors tied to consumerism and isolation. Works like Submission by Michel Houellebecq (2015) and Flights by Olga Tokarczuk (2007) illustrate these phenomena, showing how pulsional conflict is reconfigured in a world where traditional values have been dismantled and replaced by an incessant pursuit of ephemeral gratification (Bauman, 2001; Han, 2015).

From the economic perspective, Freud emphasized the role of psychic energy (libido) in regulating internal tensions and balancing drives (Freud, 1914). Contemporary literature exposes new forms of psychic energy distribution, influenced by the constant overstimulation of the contemporary world. Technology, social networks, and an overload of information generate new sources of excitation and, consequently, displeasure, leading to a level of psychic overload that Freud could not have foreseen in his time (Turkle, 2011; Han, 2015). The pleasure principle and the reality principle, described by Freud as regulators of psychic functioning, are tensioned in narratives that explore digital compulsiveness, escapism, and transient forms of satisfaction. The imbalance between these principles is central to novels like The Circle by Dave Eggers (2013), which depicts the alienation caused by constant connectivity and the insatiable quest for social validation. The outcome is a collapse of genuine pleasure and a state of psychic exhaustion that challenges Freud’s notion of energetic homeostasis (Freud, 1920; Han, 2015).

Regarding the topographical perspective, Freud’s understanding of the psyche as structured into conscious, preconscious, and unconscious realms is also profoundly impacted by contemporary literature. Freud conceived the unconscious as a repository of repressed contents, inaccessible to the conscious mind, but manifesting symbolically through dreams, symptoms, and slips of the tongue (Freud, 1900). In contemporary novels, the fragmentation of the subject and the dissolution of boundaries between reality and imagination - particularly in postmodern narratives - question this classical division of the psyche (Jameson, 1991). Authors such as Haruki Murakami in Kafka on the Shore (2002) and Clarice Lispector in The Passion According to G.H. (1964) depict characters whose consciousnesses operate in a fluid and disorienting manner, blurring the distinctions between the real and the symbolic, between wakefulness and dream states. This fluidity suggests that the contemporary unconscious is not merely repressed or separated from consciousness but instead integrates directly into everyday experiences, often reflected in states of alienation, disorientation, and existential emptiness (Birman, 2001; Roudinesco, 2000).

Furthermore, Freudian metapsychology faces new challenges when confronted with themes such as collective and historical trauma. Freud conceptualized trauma primarily as an individual experience that overwhelms the ego’s capacity to process a disturbing event (Freud, 1926). However, contemporary novels expand this notion by addressing traumas shared by entire communities, such as slavery, war, and systemic inequality (Caruth, 1996; Butler, 2009). Works like Beloved by Toni Morrison (1987) and The Underground Railroad by Colson Whitehead (2016) demonstrate that trauma can be intergenerationally transmitted, shaping identity and the collective unconscious. This perspective challenges psychoanalysis to think beyond the individual, incorporating collective trauma as a phenomenon that transcends time, culture, and generations (Alexander, 2012).

A central aspect of these discussions is the relationship between the subject and the external environment, a theme Freud explored in Civilization and Its Discontents (1930). In Freudian metapsychology, culture served a repressive role, containing drives to sustain societal order. However, contemporary literature extends this discussion, showing how a globalized and technological environment intensifies states of alienation and fragmentation (Bauman, 2001; Han, 2015). The relentless pursuit of instant gratification, pressure for constant performance, and the lack of existential meaning - as illustrated in Anxious People by Fredrik Backman (2019) - compel psychoanalysis to update its conceptualization of how individuals adapt to cultural demands in today’s world.

In summary, 21st-century contemporary literature poses significant implications for Freudian metapsychology by reconfiguring drive conflicts, redefining how psychic energy is distributed, and challenging the relationship between conscious and unconscious realms. By exploring new sources of trauma, technological advancements, and a more fragmented view of the subject, contemporary literature expands and challenges the boundaries of Freudian theory. It highlights the need for a psychoanalysis capable of engaging with the complex and fluid realities of the contemporary world (Birman, 2001; Han, 2015).

The metapsychological reflections drawn from contemporary literature reveal significant theoretical shifts in how one understands the interplay between drives, psychic energy, and the structure of the unconscious. Yet these insights are not merely theoretical; they hold tangible implications for psychoanalytic practice. As the literary representations of contemporary subjects shed light on emerging forms of psychic suffering, alienation, and trauma, psychoanalysts must adapt their clinical approaches to meet these challenges. The following section examines how contemporary literature informs and enriches clinical practice, offering new tools for understanding and addressing the complexities of the contemporary subject.

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Practical Implications

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The analysis of contemporary literature through the lens of psychoanalysis not only expands Freudian theoretical foundations but also holds significant practical implications for contemporary psychoanalytic practice, the understanding of new subjectivities, and the ways psychoanalysis interacts with the challenges of the contemporary world. The transformation of social, technological, and cultural contexts demands that psychoanalytic practice adapt to new forms of psychic suffering and the emerging manifestations of internal and external conflicts portrayed in 21st-century literary narratives (Birman, 2001; Roudinesco, 2000).

One of the primary practical implications lies in the updating of psychic symptoms. Freud observed that classic neurotic symptoms - such as hysteria, conversion symptoms, and phobias - were linked to cultural repressions and the repression of unconscious drives (Freud, 1895; Laplanche & Pontalis, 1992). However, in contemporary literature, characters often display symptoms that are more fluid and less symbolized, reflecting, in clinical practice, manifestations such as depression, anxiety disorders, emotional exhaustion, and existential emptiness (Han, 2015). This shift demands that clinicians, when working with 21st-century subjects, consider how social demands - constant performance, technological hyperconnectivity, and emotional isolation - shape the way symptoms are expressed. Novels like Anxious People by Fredrik Backman (2019) or The Circle by Dave Eggers (2013) illustrate this psychic exhaustion and alienation caused by an overload of external stimuli and social pressure. Psychoanalytic practice, therefore, must adapt to this new configuration of suffering, which manifests more as apathy, subjective disintegration, or defensive hyperactivity, rather than the structured and highly symbolized symptoms typical of classical hysteria or neurosis (Bauman, 2001; Han, 2015).

Another practical implication involves broadening the focus to include collective and intergenerational traumas. While Freud focused on individual trauma and the subject’s relationship to internal repressions, contemporary novels demonstrate that collective traumas - such as racism, social inequality, wars, genocides, and forced displacements - are transmitted across generations, shaping identities and affecting collective subjectivities (Caruth, 1996; Alexander, 2012).

Winnicott’s insights into the role of the environment in emotional health provide additional relevance for understanding contemporary psychic suffering. A dysfunctional or hostile environment - whether familial, social, or cultural - disrupts the subject’s capacity for emotional integration, reflecting what one observes in both literary and clinical narratives. In novels like O Corti?o, the absence of a ‘facilitating environment’ mirrors how systemic adversity can shape individuals, stripping them of autonomy and psychic cohesion (Winnicott, 1960). This perspective underscores the need for psychoanalytic practice to address external pressures and social contexts in addition to intrapsychic conflicts.

Works like Torto Arado by Itamar Vieira Junior (2019) or Beloved by Toni Morrison (1987) exemplify how historical and social traumas influence the psyche of both individuals and communities over time. Clinically, this requires psychoanalysts to remain attuned not only to family dynamics and individual experiences but also to the cultural and social imprints that shape a patient’s unconscious. Integrating a sensitivity to collective experiences and inherited trauma becomes essential, as these historical wounds can manifest subjectively in individual symptoms (Alexander, 2012; Butler, 2009).

Contemporary literature also highlights transformations in subjectivity within a digitalized world. The rise of social media, the virtual universe, and technology-mediated interactions profoundly impacts how individuals construct their identities and relationships (Turkle, 2011). Novels such as Convenience Store Woman by Sayaka Murata (2018) and Nutshell by Ian McEwan (2016) explore the fragmentation of identity and existential emptiness that arise in a world where public image and self-performance replace authentic interpersonal encounters. These phenomena pose practical challenges for clinicians, as contemporary patients often report difficulties in establishing authentic bonds, alongside feelings of alienation, anxiety, and helplessness. Psychoanalysis must now reflect on how the digital world affects the structures of narcissism, repression, and ego formation, providing a therapeutic space capable of addressing these novel forms of suffering (Han, 2015; Birman, 2001).

A crucial practical implication is the re-examination of identity and gender notions. Contemporary literature challenges traditional conceptions by exploring themes such as fluid identities, diverse sexual orientations, and gender tensions, as seen in works like Girl, Woman, Other by Bernardine Evaristo (2019) and The Thing Around Your Neck by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie (2009). These novels question the binary and normative views of sexuality found in much of classical psychoanalysis, underscoring the need for a more inclusive psychoanalysis that acknowledges the plurality of contemporary identities (Butler, 2009). In practice, this requires clinicians to adjust their listening to accommodate subjects who challenge traditional boundaries of gender and sexuality, helping them construct a cohesive sense of identity in a world that still imposes cultural and social barriers.

Another significant challenge lies in how contemporary literature portrays the fragmentation of the subject. Freud (1915) conceived of the psyche as organized into conscious, preconscious, and unconscious realms, with relatively defined boundaries. However, contemporary novels frequently explore fragmented and chaotic identities, where the lines between reality and imagination, self and other, become blurred (Jameson, 1991; Birman, 2001). Narratives by authors like Haruki Murakami and Clarice Lispector suggest a more fluid and disintegrated view of subjectivity, reflected in psychic states such as depersonalization, alienation, and existential emptiness. Clinically, psychoanalysts must navigate this new presentation of the subject, where coherent identity is often replaced by multiplicity and overstimulation (Han, 2015; Butler, 2009).

Finally, the practical implications of this dialogue between contemporary literature and psychoanalysis point to the need for flexibility in clinical listening. The 21st-century world presents complex and multifaceted psychic suffering, stemming from a combination of internal drives, cultural inheritances, and external pressures (Bauman, 2001). By reflecting these new subjective realities, literature provides psychoanalysts with a privileged lens to understand contemporary anxieties, thereby enhancing their capacity for attuned listening and interpretation (Roudinesco, 2000; Birman, 2001).

In conclusion, contemporary literature serves as both a mirror and a map for understanding the evolving nature of psychic suffering in the contemporary world. By engaging with themes such as new symptoms, collective trauma, digital alienation, gender fluidity, and identity fragmentation, psychoanalysis can adapt its theories and practices to remain relevant and effective in addressing the psychic challenges of the contemporary subject.

The practical implications of psychoanalysis’ dialogue with literature underscore its relevance for addressing the evolving challenges of contemporary subjectivity. By engaging with themes of digital alienation, collective trauma, and identity fragmentation, literature provides a vital lens through which psychoanalysis can adapt to contemporary psychic realities. Returning to Senhora and O Corti?o, the conclusion revisits their enduring significance, illustrating how these 19th-century works not only reflect the tensions of their time but also anticipate central debates in psychoanalysis. Ultimately, this dialogue reaffirms the rich interplay between literature and psychoanalysis as a means of deepening our understanding of the human condition.

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Conclusion

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Senhora and O Corti?o reflect the cultural and social transformations of the 19th century, a period of transition marked by scientific advancements, new materialist theories, and the crisis of idealized visions of the individual. Romanticism, with its emphasis on exaggerated subjectivity, sentimentalism, and the idealization of love, resonates with psychoanalytic interest in internal conflicts of the unconscious and psychic symptoms, such as hysteria, which Freud later analyzed as symbolic manifestations of repressed desires (Freud, 1895; Birman, 2001; Roudinesco, 2000).

On the other hand, Naturalism, by emphasizing biological and social determinism, anticipates debates about primitive drives - Eros and Thanatos - that dominate human behavior in extreme situations and under degraded environmental conditions (Freud, 1920; Zola, 1880; Gomes, 2010). In O Corti?o, the physical and symbolic space of the tenement acts as a central agent shaping the characters’ actions, revealing a sharp critique of social environments and instinctual forces that reduce individuals to automatic behaviors (Candido, 2006; Schwarz, 2000). The depiction of unrestrained sexuality, violence, and moral decay aligns with Freudian conceptions of instinctual drives and suggests that, in oppressive contexts, primitive forces emerge more overtly, disrupting ideals of civility.

The relationship between literature and psychoanalysis proves profoundly fertile. The psychological conflicts represented in Senhora and the instinctual drives explored in O Corti?o anticipate key Freudian concepts, such as repression, the manifestation of the unconscious, and the tension between drive and civilization (Freud, 1930; Birman, 2001). Aurélia Camargo’s emotional games, her bursts of affection and resentment, and her theatrical behavior can be read as symbolic expressions of a conflicted subjectivity, marked by repressed desires and attempts to control her emotions and destiny. Freud, in his studies of hysteria and the dynamics of psychic symptoms, identified how repressed unconscious desires manifest indirectly through behaviors and symptoms (Freud, 1905; Laplanche & Pontalis, 1992).

In contrast, the characters of O Corti?o - such as Jo?o Rom?o, Bertoleza, and Rita Baiana - are presented in a state of alienation, reduced to their basic drives and shaped by environmental demands. This portrayal reflects the materialist determinism of Naturalism in constituting the subject. Violence, unrestrained sexuality, and impulsive behaviors illustrate the dominance of primitive unconscious forces in contexts where the degraded environment overwhelms the capacity for rational elaboration (Gomes, 2010; Schwarz, 2000). Freud’s concept of the duality between life drives (Eros) and death drives (Thanatos) acknowledges the role of these primal forces in human behavior, especially in moments of social collapse or in environments where cultural repression cannot sufficiently contain instincts (Freud, 1920).

By developing psychoanalysis, Freud proposed a synthesis between these two perspectives: humans are shaped both by internal conflicts of the unconscious and by external pressures of the social and cultural environment (Freud, 1930; Roudinesco, 2000). While Romanticism focuses on the subject’s interiority and psychic contradictions, Naturalism shifts its gaze to external conditions, demonstrating how environment and biological drives interfere with human behavior and relationships. Psychoanalysis, by articulating these two dimensions, offers a key interpretative framework for both works, integrating internal tensions and external determinants that shape human experience (Birman, 2001; Freud, 1930).

Winnicott’s theoretical contribution further enriches this understanding by emphasizing how the quality of the environment influences the subject’s emotional and psychological development. In O Corti?o, the oppressive tenement symbolizes a destructive external reality that deprives individuals of the emotional stability necessary for psychic integration, mirroring Winnicott’s assertion that an unsupportive environment destabilizes the self (Winnicott, 1960). This insight reinforces the Naturalist critique while expanding the psychoanalytic dialogue on the interplay between external forces and subjectivity.

Ultimately, the significance of these works lies in their ability to illuminate the evolution of conceptions of the subject in modernity. Senhora and O Corti?o not only reflect the concerns of their respective eras but also offer literary representations that dialogue with emerging scientific and philosophical paradigms of the 19th century (Bosi, 2006; Candido, 2006). By exploring the dilemmas of subjectivity and the forces acting upon the individual, these works contribute to a deeper understanding of the transformations in contemporary thought and reinforce literature as a privileged space to investigate the tensions shaping the human psyche (Schwarz, 2000; Birman, 2001).

Thus, both José de Alencar and Aluísio Azevedo, in working with different conceptions of the subject - at times introspective and idealized, at other times determined by external forces - anticipate reflections that Freud would later systematize. This solidifies the fertile relationship between literature and psychoanalysis, which continues to provide valuable insights into the complexities of the human condition.

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