Proud to be Malaysian - Bringing Truth to Our Past (Part 1)

Extracted from pages 33-36 of A History of Malaysia: Second Edition (Palgrave Macmillan 2001) and Malaysia History - Bringing truth to our past (www.malaysiahistory.net)

Until the beginning of the fifteenth century CE, the history of what is now Malaysia is difficult to reconstruct with any certainty. Because of this lack of information, historians have tended to regard the rise of a great entrepot, Malacca, on the west coast of the Malay peninsula as an identifiable starting point for Malay history. Nevertheless, Malacca's development from a quiet fishing-village to an emporium and centre of Malay culture cannot be explained unless one realizes that behind the splendour of its court and the vigour of its commerce lay traditions of trade and government that had evolved over centuries. The story of Malaysia does not  therefore begin at Malacca but stretches back deep into the past.

1 Gangga Negara (2nd-11th century) 

Gangga Negara is believed to be a lost semi-legendary Hindu kingdom mentioned in Sejarah Melayu that covered present-day Beruas, Dinding and Manjung in the state of Perak, Malaysia with Raja Gangga Shah Johan as one of its kings. The Sejarah Melayu points to Bruas as the capital of the lost kingdom. Researchers believe that the kingdom collapsed after an attack by King Rajendra Chola I of Coromandel, South India, between 1025 and 1026.

Gangga Negara, meaning “a city on the Ganges” in Sanskrit, is believed to be a Hindu Malay kingdom founded by Hindu traders, or Kambuja peoples, originating from Ganganagar in northwest India. These Kambuja peoples were an Indo-Iranian clan of the Indo-Aryan family, originally localized in Pamirs and Badakshan. They built their colonies in Southeast Asia around 2000 years ago at the Mekong valley and also at certain sites within the Malay archipelago such as Funan, Chenla, Champa, Khmer, Angkor, Langkasuka, Sailendra and Srivijaya. Historians have traced the travels of the Kambuja traders from Gujarat to Sri Lanka and then to Ligor (Nakhon Sri Thammarat) of the northern Malay peninsular, overland to Thailand and Cambodia. 

Traders from the kingdom of Champ, enroute to Aceh, used Pattani as an overland route to cross the Isthmus of Kra. As a result of this, the Chi Tu kingdom, and Lembah Bujang, thrived economically and grew in importance.

Research into the Beruas kingdom had initially been conducted by Colonel James Low in 1849 and subsequently by H.G. Quaritch-Wales a  century later. Both researchers agreed that the Gangga Negara kingdom existed but could not ascertain its exact location. The discovery of artifacts including tombstones bearing inscriptions indicates that Beruas could have been a crucial platform for the spread of Islam in Peninsular Malaysia. However, through these and other such archaeological evidence, it has been postulated that Pengkalan(Ipoh), Kinta Valley, Tanjung Rambutan, Bidor and Sungai Siput were included within the kingdom and that the kingdom’s center might have shifted several times.

Significantly, Kuala Selinsing, a coastal site located north of Perak is currently one of the most popular archaeological sites within the area. In 1998, a local team of archaeologists led by Nik Hassan Shuhaimi of Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) conducted research on the neighbouring islands of Pulau Buluh and Pulau Kelumpang and discovered artifacts such as glass beads and bead making tools, which indicate the existence of a glass-manufacturing community. It has been surmised that they obtained the blue-colouring for their beads from Egypt, which was much sought after by the Thais (Ban Chiang) as well as the Dayaks of Borneo. Till today, the blue beads which are worn during ceremonies are still considered to be the most valuable. 

Gangga Negara was renamed ‘Beruas’ after the establishment of Islam.

Langkasuka (2nd-14th century) 

Langkasuka was an ancient Hindu Malay kingdom located in the Malay Peninsula. This kingdom was founded by the Mon peoples following their migration from the Mon State in modern-day Burma downward to the West Coast of Malaya. The settlement of the Mons subsequently introduced Hinduism and later Buddhism to the area.

The kingdom, along with the Kedah Sultanate, numbers amongst the earliest civilizations founded on the Malay Peninsula. According to tradition, the founding of the kingdom took place in the 2nd century. Malay legends claim that Langkasuka was founded at Kedah, and later moved to Pattani.

The historical record is sparse, but a Chinese Liang Dynasty record (c. 500 A.D.) refers to the kingdom of “Lang-ya-xiu” (Chinese: 狼牙脩) as being founded in the 1st century AD. According to this Chinese chronicle, Langkasuka was 24,000 li (traditional Chinese unit of measurement, roughly equivalent to 500m) in distance from Guangzhou. Its capital was surrounded by walls, forming a fortified city with double gates, towers and pavilions. The Buddhist monk Yi Jing mentioned encountering three Chinese monks who lived in Lang-chia-su.

Notably, the kingdom’s designation in Chinese records changed over time: it was known as “Lang-ya-se-chia” during the Song dynasty (960-1279); “Long-ya-si-jiao” during the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368); and “Lang-se-chia” during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), as evidenced by the Mao Kun map of Admiral Zheng He.

The name “Langkasuka” was also mentioned in Malay and Javanese chronicles. Tamil sources cite “Ilangasoka” as one of Rajendra Chola’s conquests in his expedition against the Srivijaya empire. It was described as a kingdom that that was “undaunted in fierce battles”.

In 515 AD King Bhagadatta first established relations with China, with further embassies sent in 523, 531 and 568. In the 12th century Langkasuka was a tributary to the Srivijaya empire, and around the 15th century it was replaced by the Pattani Kingdom.

Pan Pan (3rd-5th century) 

Pan Pan is a relatively obscure Hindu Kingdom believed to have existed around 3rd-7th Century CE., located within the regions of present-day Kelantan or Terengganu, Malaysia.The kingdom was eventually conquered by Srivijaya under the leadership of Dharmasetu before 775 CE. It is speculated be related to Pan tan i (Pattani Kingdom), a Malay sultanate that covered approximately the area of the modern Thai provinces of Pattani, Yala, Narathiwat and much of the northern part of modern Malaysia, and is different in culture and language to other Malay regions nearby.

Srivijaya (7-13th century)

Srivijaya or Sriwijaya was a powerful ancient Malay maritime empire whose headquarters were based on the island of Sumatra, modern day Indonesia and had its regional centre in the province of Chaiya, near modern Surat Thani, Thailand. [1] Srivijaya was an important center for Buddhist expansion in the 8th to 12th centuries. In Sanskrit, sri (????) means “shining” or “radiant” and vijaya (????) means “victory” or “excellence”.[5]

The earliest concrete proof of its existence dates from the 7th century; a Chinese monk, I-Tsing, wrote that he visited Srivijaya in 671 for 6 months.[2][3] The first inscription in which the name ‘Srivijaya’ appears also dates from the 7th century, namely the Kedukan Bukit Inscription around Palembang in Sumatra, dated 683.[4] The kingdom ceased to exist in the 13th century due to various
factors, principally the expansion of the Javanese Majapahit empire.[1]

Due to a lack of archeological evidence and lapse in Malay historical consciousness, the existence of Srivijaya as a powerful political entity in Southeast Asia was only formally recognized in 1918 when French historian George Coedès of the école fran?aise d’Extrême-Orient postulated the existence of the empire.[5] By 1993, Pierre-Yves Manguin proved that the centre of Srivijaya was along the  Musi River between Bukit Seguntang and Sabokingking (situated in what is now the province of South Sumatra, Indonesia).[5]

Historiography 

Due to the lack of continuous records of Srivijaya in Indonesian histories, its forgotten past has been subject to reconstruction by
foreign scholars. No modern Indonesians, not even those of the Palembang area around which the kingdom was based, had heard of Srivijaya until the 1920s, when French scholar George Coedès published his discoveries and interpretations in Dutch and Indonesian-language newspapers.[6] Coedès noted that the Chinese references to “Sanfoqi”, previously read as “Sribhoja”, and the inscriptions in Old Malay, refer to the same empire.[7]

Srivijaya became a symbol of early Sumatran greatness, and a great empire to balance Java’s Majapahit in the east. Srivijaya (and by extension Sumatra) had been known by different names to different peoples. The Chinese called it Sanfotsi or San Fo Qi; provisionally, there had existed an even older kingdom called Kantoli that could be considered the predecessor of Srivijaya.[8][9] In the languages of Sanskrit and Pali, it is referred to as Yavadesh and Javadeh, respectively.[8] The Arabs called it Zabag and the Khmer called it Melayu.[8]

Formation and Growth of a Commerical Empire

Little physical evidence of Srivijaya remains.[11] According to the Kedukan Bukit Inscription, dated 605 Saka (683 AD), the empire of Srivijaya was founded by Dapunta Hyang ?ri Yacanaca (Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa). He led 20,000 troops (mainly land troopers and a few hundred ships) from Minanga Tamwan to Jambi and Palembang.

The empire was a coastal trading centre and was a thalassocracy (a state with primarily maritime realms). As such, it did not extend its influence far beyond the coastal areas of the islands of Southeast Asia, with the exception of contributing to the population of Madagascar 3,300 miles to the west.[12] Around the year 500, Srivijayan roots began to develop around present-day Palembang, Sumatra, in modern Indonesia. The empire was organised in three main zones—the estuarine capital region centred in Palembang, the Musi
River basin which served as hinterland, and rival estuarine areas capable of forming rival power centres. The areas upstream of the Musi River were rich in various commodities valuable to Chinese traders.[13] The capital was governed directly by the ruler while the hinterland remained under the administration of local datus or chiefs, who each paid allegiance to the Srivijaya maharaja or king. Force was the dominant element in the empire’s relations with rival river systems such as the Batang Hari, which centred in Jambi. The ruling lineage formed dynastic alliances with the Sailendras of Central Java through intermarriage and lived along the Javanese Sanjaya dynasty when the Srivijayan capital was located in Java.

The Golden Age 

From the 5th to the 13th century, the Srivijaya kingdom controlled the Malay Peninsula and much of the island of Java from its regional capital of Chaiya in the Surat Thani province of Thailand, which had been inhabited by the Negrito and Malayan tribes during prehistoric times. Some scholars state that the name Chai-ya may have derived its eponymous origins in Sri-vi-ja-ya. Notably, Wiang Sa and Phunphin were other main settlements of that time.

WIthin the 7th century, Cham ports, especially Hoi Ann, in Central Vietnam started to attract traders,

diverting the flow of trade away from Srivijayan ports. In an effort to regain trade supremacy, Srivijayan maharaja Dharmasetu launched
various raids against the coastal cities of Indochina (modern day Cambodia).

The period between the 8th and the 9th century saw continuous warfare occuring between the kingdoms in Java, Siam, Angkor and Champa. Srivijaya conducted raids against a small area located somewhere along the Mekong, is suspected to be Indrapura.

A Cambodian noble raised within the Srivijayan realm of Java by the name of Jayavarman II was sent to Indrapura as a governor to maintain order. Today, we know that Jayavarman as Jayavarman II.

The Srivijayans continued to dominate areas around present-day Cambodia until Jayavarman II declared sovereignty and declared the Khmer Empire dynasty, thus severing the Srivijayan link later in the same century.[18] 

After Dharmasetu, Samaratungga became the next Maharaja of Srivijaya. He reigned as ruler from 792 to 835. Contrary to the expansionist policies of Dharmasetu, Samaratungga did not indulge in military expansion, concentrating instead on developing existing Srivijayan roots in Java. He personally oversaw the construction of Borobudur; the temple was completed in 825, during his reign.[19]

After the fall of the Srivijaya in Chaiya, the area was divided into the cities Chaiya, Thatong (now Kanchanadit) and Khirirat Nikhom.

Srivijaya also maintained close relations with the Pala Empire in Bengal, and an 860 inscription records that maharaja Balaputra dedicated a monastery at the Nalanda university in Pala territory. Relations with the Chola dynasty of southern India were initially friendly but deteriorated into actual warfare in the eleventh century.

After a trade disruption at Canton between 820 and 850, the ruler of Jambi was able to assert enough independence to send missions to China in 853 and 871. The Melayu kingdom’s independence coincided with the expulsion of Sailendran Balaputradewa from Java, who subsequently seized the throne of Srivijaya. The new maharaja was able to dispatch a tributary mission to China by 902. Two years later, the expiring Tang Dynasty conferred a title on a Srivijayan envoy. This connection enabled the Srivijayan empire to reap the benefits of the brisk trade between the overseas world and the prosperous Song dynasty in the following century. Circa 903, the Muslim writer Ibn Rustah was so impressed with the wealth of Srivijaya’s ruler that he declared one would not hear of a king who was richer, stronger or with more revenue. The main urban centres were at Palembang (especially the Bukit Seguntang area),Muara Jambi and Kedah.

The rivalry between Sumatran Srivijaya and the Central-Javanese Medang kingdom intensified in the late 10th century. This animosity was arguably precipitated by the exiled maharaja’s efforts to reclaim Sailendra lands in Java and also by Medang aspiration to challenge Srivijaya domination in the region. In the year 990, Medang king Dharmawangsa launched a naval invasion against Srivijaya, and unsuccessfully attempted to capture Palembang. Dharmawangsa’s invasion led the Maharaja of Srivijaya, Chulamaniwarmadewa to seek protection from China. In 1006, Srivijaya’s mandala alliance successfully repelled the Javanese invasion. In retaliation, Srivijaya assisted Haji (king) Wurawari of Lwaram in raising a coup against the Medang royal family. With the death of Dharmawangsa and the fall of the Medang capital, Srivijaya contributed to the collapse of Medang kingdom, leaving Eastern Java in further unrest, violence, and desolation for several years to come.

In spite of this conflict, the influence of the empire had reached Manila by the 10th century through the establishment of a
kingdom.[21][22]By the twelfth century, the vast empire had expanded to include parts of Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Western Java, Sulawesi, the Moluccas, Borneo and the Philippines, most notably the Sulu Archipelago and the Visayas islands (the latter group of islands
is named after the empire).[23]

Srivijaya remained a formidable sea power until the thirteenth century.[1]

To be continued...

Early Kingdoms of Malaya