The Problem of Diversity in Naval Aviation Retention

August 3, 2019

This paper was written to satisfy the curriculum requirements of the University of Southern California, Rossier School of Education's Doctor of Education in Organizational Change and Leadership.

            Naval Aviation has a retention problem; however, the U.S. Navy has a larger problem retaining female and minority aviators. Fewer than one in ten women who begin flight training will serve beyond their initial obligation.  The retention of minority aviators is slightly better where one in eight will continue beyond their initial service obligation. This literature review examines three elements of the problem; accession barriers, retention barriers, and data analysis. 

Problem of Practice

This paper focuses on the organizational diversity problem of female and minority Naval Aviator underrepresentation in senior leadership positions.  Current data suggests only 10% of women and 30% of minority Naval Aviators continue to serve beyond their initial service obligation (Department of the Navy, 2019).  As a result, women comprise only 3%, and minorities are 9%, of Naval Aviation’s Commanding Officers, Major Commanders, and Flag Officers demonstrating this is a problem (Department of the Navy, 2019).  The evidence shows that the Navy has a long-standing diversity retention challenge.  The Fiscal Year 2008 (FY 2008) retention rate for female aviators continuing service as a Lieutenant Commander was 8% and only slightly declined to 7% by FY 2018 despite a 40% increase in accessions (Department of the Navy, 2019).  This problem is important because the Navy’s improving women and minority Naval Aviator retention will positively impact the Navy’s current retention challenges, and increase organizational performance and innovation (Stevens, Plaut, & Sanchez-Burks, 2008).  The Navy views workforce diversity, innovation, and resiliency as essential to address today’s complex security challenges (Department of the Navy, 2018).

Literature Review

This review covers literature under three topic areas that emerged from the review process.  These topic areas are factors affecting accessions, factors affecting retention, and diversity data analysis.  Although the literature presented here has been applied to a variety of problems in a variety of contexts, this review focuses primarily on the literature’s application to the problem of Naval Aviator leadership diversity. 

Factors Affecting Accession

Accessions are a critical and often overlooked aspect of organizational retention. Naval Aviation’s diversity retention is a direct byproduct of diversity accessions into the Navy through the three primary officer accession sources; the United States Naval Academy, Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps (NROTC) programs, and Officer Candidate School (OCS). Some research suggests increasing accessions as the easiest way to improve diversity.  However, several factors affect women and minority accessions such as negative attitudes about the military, the academic achievement gap impacting minorities and those of low socioeconomic status, and the limitations of efforts to close the gap.  This section will review accession trends at service academies and discuss the factors impacting increased diversity.

Service academy diversity trends

            Diversity trends at the service academies show improvement over prior decades; yet, achieving parity with very selective civilian education institutions and improving equity for underrepresented groups requires more work.  Service academy diversity accession is a strong indicator of future diversity in each service’s officer corps.  Each academy admits between 1,100 and 1,350 cadets and midshipmen annually and provides a tuition-free, four-year undergraduate education (Kirby, Thie, Naftel, & Adelson, 2010).  The principal academy mission is preparing students to serve as commissioned officers for a minimum of five years in their respective services (Kirby et al., 2010).  Service academies categorize diversity metrics into four groups; accession, first-year completion, graduation, and initial service obligation completion. Comparing the 1992-94 and 2007-09 cohorts, USNA diversity accessions increased from 15% to 21% for women and from 18% to 28% for nonwhites (Kirby et al., 2010).  More recently, the USNA Class of 2022 is 28% women and over 34% minority (United States Naval Academy, 2019b).  A comparison of first-year completion rates for the 1992-94 and 2007-09 cohorts are improved from 83% to 91% for women, only slightly less than that of men, and improved for all races with whites and Hispanics at 94% and blacks and Asians at 93% (Kirby et al., 2010).  Over 85% of women graduate, and at an equal rate with men which is a significant improvement from the 70% female graduation rate of earlier cohorts.  While Asians and whites graduate better than the overall average, Hispanics and blacks still graduate below the overall average (Kirby et al., 2010).  Initial service obligation completions reflect unplanned attrition that is increasing among women and minorities despite improvements in accession and graduation.  Women show a significant decline in initial service obligation completion from 98% to 75%, while nonwhites decreased from 95% to 82% (Kirby et al., 2010).  Multiple factors influence increasing initial service obligation attrition such as individual performance and aptitude, medical issues, or service force structure policies.  Academy accession and graduation rates suggest negative attitudes towards military service and reveals the emergence of disparity along racial lines, potentially linking education achievement gaps to equitable education outcomes.  

Impact of negative military attitudes and the achievement gap.

Negative attitudes towards military service, and a limited number of applicants possessing the academic criteria for admission and graduation, influence low service academy diversity.  The number of high school males interested in military service decreased from 60% to 40% over the last 20 years; additionally, 82% of women state they will not serve despite improving career opportunities (Sackett & Mavor, 2019).  Negative historical attitudes, decreasing family influences, and the transference of experiences from former servicemembers all contribute to declining interest.  The Vietnam conflict coincided with America’s civil rights movement, and although blacks comprised 11% of the population, media reports of black soldiers accounting for nearly 25% of enlisted Army casualties fueled perceptions blacks were drafted and sent to Vietnam combat units at a disproportional rate (Kamarck, 2017).  Views of racism influence pro-military perceptions across generations.  Bates (1973) found that, of those eligible for service academy recruitment, less than one percent of the black population was interested in military service.  Despite years of progress, there are lasting perceptions among the black community that there is no place for them among the officer corps (Williams, 1995).  At USNA perceptions of racism linger, a 1997 survey shows 47% of Midshipmen believed racism was a problem (S. D. Hansen, 2019).  In 1999, USNA expelled a black male Midshipman after he had consensual sex with a white female Midshipman who did not receive equal punishment, perpetuating perceptions of bias (S. D. Hansen, 2019).  Negative attitudes about military service are not limited to racism.  The 1986 movie “Top Gun” glorifies a male-dominated military fighter-pilot culture; it offers powerful imagery that may suggest women are not able to perform the job, reinforcing an exclusionary narrative (National Research Council, 1997).  

Declining family-ties to military service remove a potential positive influencer. Nearly 8.8% of the population served on active duty during World War II, and today, it is less than 1% (Kamarck, 2017).  In 1970, nearly 40% of children born had a veteran parent; however, by 2000, the number decreased to only 8% (Sackett & Mavor, 2019).  Despite a resurgence in patriotism in the years following 9/11, the evidence suggests fewer Americans know a service member than before, reducing the likelihood of positive attitudes gained through relational influence.  Many without family connections to the military often learn from former military members who return to civilian life and share stories of their negative experiences (Sackett & Mavor, 2019).  

The legacy of American segregation and institutional racism disadvantages minority educational achievement, which adversely affects future life opportunity (National Research Council, 1997).  Improving diversity in aviation requires improving attitudes for military service and nurturing a desire for a service academy appointment, but motivation alone cannot offset the barriers created by the achievement gap. The academic achievement gap is detrimental to minorities and lower socioeconomic groups, creating obstacles to future opportunity. Diversity efforts must create an opportunity to develop an academic foundation and encourage aviation careers for underrepresented groups (National Research Council, 1997).  Service academies require a minimum of three years of high school math for appointment; however, less than 40% of black males historically complete the minimum requirement with a B or better grade (Bates, 1973). Recent data suggests black student mathematics scores have improved from the early 1990s to today, but their scores are consistently lower than white or Asian counterparts (OECD, 2019). Although Hispanic students represent the fastest-growing demographic group in the U.S., their mathematics and reading achievement gap from 1990 to 2007 was unchanged (Hemphill & Vanneman, 2010).  Improving educational achievement extends beyond closing the $23 billion difference between white and non-white school districts and includes addressing the institutional forces perpetuating poverty and inequity that are barriers to achievement (EdBuild, 2019; Garcia & Weiss, 2017).  The legacy of segregation-era policies undermines the ability for schools to raise revenue; and despite the financial imbalance impacting education, multiple long-standing institutional barriers challenge skill development which inhibits accession and retention in aviation fields (EdBuild, 2019; National Research Council, 1997).

Limits of effort to bridge the gap.

Special effort is necessary to inspire individuals from underrepresented groups to seek aviation careers (National Research Council, 1997).  The services created several initiatives aimed at helping bridge the academic achievement gap for underrepresented groups to encourage and facilitate military service. The Navy Junior Reserve Officer’s Training Corps (NJROTC) is one of several efforts to provide permanent outreach to at-risk high school students and improve academic achievement. Blending classroom instruction with extracurricular activity, NJROTC focuses on improving educational outcomes while preparing cadets for military service (Pema & Mehay, 2010).  The services directly, and indirectly through affinity groups, support diversity within the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields.  STEM historically falls behind other vocations in diversity, and there is minimal diversity among professional pilots (Ison, Herron, & Weiland, 2016).  NJROTC and other diversity outreach programs receive limited resources and have limited reach.  However, the Naval Academy Preparatory School (NAPS) enhances midshipman candidates’ moral, mental, and physical foundations, preparing them for success at USNA, ultimately improving officer corps diversity (Jones, 1992; United States Naval Academy, 2019a).  USNA applicants who show potential to succeed as a Naval Officer but would benefit from additional preparations are admitted to NAPS, providing a second chance for an academy appointment (Jones, 1992).  USNA Class of 2022 appointed 206 midshipmen from NAPS (United States Naval Academy, 2019b).  Although NAPS prepares midshipmen candidates for admission to USNA, the academic achievement gap remains.  NAPS graduates were either somewhat comparable (women) or performed poorer (minorities) academically and had lower military performance grades than other prep school graduates (Jones, 1992).  The military selects senior leaders exclusively from within the organization; therefore, efforts to improve representation begin with accessing enough individuals to account for natural organizational attrition.  Hierarchal frameworks anticipate some organizational attrition which exacerbates the problem of low leadership diversity caused by low accessions; however, research suggests there are additional factors impacting retention. 

Factors Affecting Retention

The leading service-identified factors affecting retention are less significant than the key issues identified in survey data from officers intending to separate;  furthermore, there are unique factors that influence the retention behaviors of women and minorities that undermine confidence in the service and contribute to lower retention.  Senior Navy leadership perceives poor military aircraft material readiness and the allure of a strong commercial aviation industry as the causes of low retention (115th Congress, 2017).  Lack of available aircraft reduces experience and delays tactical qualifications, hampering Naval Aviation’s effective lethality.  These issues can also negatively impact an aviator’s career (115th Congress, 2017). 

However, survey data suggests the prime reasons aviators separate is not because of the airlines.  A 2014 survey reveals perceptions of poor work/life balance, increased deployments, declining pay and compensation, and growing mistrust of senior leaders all cause low morale and low interest in advancing to leadership positions (Snodgrass & Kohlmann, 2014).  The factors affecting retention are not isolated to 2014.  According to the Government Accounting Office (GAO), flight time, career flexibility, location flexibility, and time at home are the service-identified areas most impactful to quality of life and retention (GAO, 2018).  The drivers limiting flight time are aircraft availability, increased administrative burden, and assignment to non-flying staff billets.  The Navy created opportunities for senior officer pilots to continue flying as instructors (GAO, 2018); however, the service has not addressed how these initiatives will improve the retention of junior officers.  The Navy introduced the Career Intermission Program (CIP) to address concerns of career inflexibility (115th Congress, 2017).  In 2018 only 9 Naval Aviators participated in the program (GAO, 2018), an estimated one percent of the population.  CIP participants draw a limited stipend instead of their full salary meaning CIP is not a viable option for single-parent families or families with heavy financial burden.  According to Dao, other factors influencing low quality of life perceptions include poor housing, neglected infrastructure and base facilities, healthcare access and quality, an antiquated retirement system, and relocation policies affecting family stability (as cited in Sackett & Mavor, 2019).  

There are additional retention factors that uniquely impact women and minority aviators.  The early years of commercial aviation which emphasized the masculine nature of flying coupled with the lasting repercussions from discrimination and non-inclusive cultures result in white males dominating most important aviation jobs (National Research Council, 1997).  Many commercial aviation leaders and employees have military backgrounds; the industry reflects its own cultural traditions and the larger societal environment which suggests passive discrimination in commercial aviation is a byproduct of bias and non-inclusivity experienced during military service.  Kamarck (2017) points out that some suggest intensifying equal opportunity efforts for historically underrepresented groups who remain disadvantaged; however, others offer the services should provide comparable equal-opportunity rights and protections afforded in the private sector.  Improving diversity accessions and retention requires not only improving equal opportunity but also increasing leadership diversity. Vietnam era blacks lost confidence in the institution because they encountered so few blacks in senior leadership roles (Kamarck, 2017).

Today, senior leaders are not a demographic reflection of the people they lead. The lack of gender and racial diversity may suggest a reemergence of the historical erosion of confidence in the reality of equal military leadership opportunity (Kamarck, 2017).  Studies on cohesion further support the importance of a leadership structure that reflects similar demographic makeup, backgrounds, and experiences to achieve social cohesion which improves job satisfaction, retention, and organizational performance (Kamarck, 2017).  Improving retention behaviors at critical career decision points will improve gender and minority diversity at senior leadership positions. The factors affecting retention are complex, interdependent, and vary by individual, and become even more complex when particular data elements impacting women and minorities are not collected thus impeding the Navy’s ability to understand the true nature of the retention challenges.  

Diversity Data Collection and Analysis

Despite congressional mandates to provide data relevant to career opportunity and performance of various demographic groups, the DoD’s aggregated demographic information and insufficient retention data is a barrier to root cause analysis and solution development which may lead to flawed initiatives that mask individual-level impacts.  The 2013 National Defense Authorization Act mandated the services develop and implement a plan to achieve a personnel demographic composition that reflects present U.S. society while precluding metrics that undermine the military’s merit-based advancement and recognition processes  (112th Congress, 2013).  The law further requires the development of a uniform set of metrics and standardized manner for collecting data.  Additionally, the services are required to submit annual reports reflecting the demographic composition of current service members, those promoted, those who reenlisted, and those eligible for flag and general officer rank (112th Congress, 2013).  As of the 2017 PopRep, the Department of Defense Population Representation in the Military Services report, this level of fidelity in diversity reporting is not published (CNA, 2017).  According to the GAO, the services monitor pilot retention; however, limited data prevents a comprehensive understanding of the reasons influencing military pilot retention, especially airline hiring trends (2018).  The Navy collects retention data on those who declined a career milestone, yet it does not appear to understand the influence of other factors driving low retention.  The Navy aggregates data into either all women or minorities and does not discern specific trends among various subgroups.  Aggregated data collection and analysis, especially when compared to a demographic group already predisposed to continued service, masks the significance of factors at the individual level (Sackett & Mavor, 2019).  Diversity data collection and analysis is essential to an improved understanding of why the Navy has significant underrepresentation of women and minorities in senior leadership positions.  The Navy’s ability to make data-driven decisions on human capital management relies on improved diversity data analytics that considers the unique barriers women and minorities face in Naval Aviation, as well as the comparative advantage diversity brings to organizational performance in order to meet today’s complex national security challenges.

Recommendations

The following recommendations are measures the Navy can undertake or further research to improve the accession and retention of women and minority Naval Aviators.  These recommendations are interdependent and will have limited effect if only applied to small groups or independent of other improvements.  Improving leadership diversity begins with improving accession diversity.  This is achieved by transforming or providing greater support to programs that bridge the education achievement gap.  NJROTC programs could include dedicated STEM tutoring and standardized test preparation support.  High School affinity groups can be mentored locally and regionally through the NROTC programs, providing students exposure to a program that can lead them to naval service and affording Midshipmen an opportunity to develop mentorship skills.  Transition NAPS to a two-year community college construct that provides a focused environment to improve the academic foundation necessary for USNA.  Under the current one-year program NAPS to USNA results in a five-year undergraduate education.  A two-year NAPS community college would transition into a three-year USNA program without sacrificing some of the critical elements of the Midshipman experience.  This approach mirrors the path taken from a public community college into an NROTC program.  Improving accessions will occur when a Naval Aviation career is desirable to women and minorities.  Significantly improving career flexibility and providing enough opportunities for a majority of officers to broaden their education and experience before or concurrent with initial service obligation expiration.  This will satisfy individual desires and retain critical talent through a subsequent service commitment.  Additionally, women aviators should be afforded an opportunity to start a family without feeling the pressure they are compromising their career or placing their unit at a disadvantage.  Lastly, the Navy can improve retention data collection efforts.  Annual survey data regarding observations and intentions can forecast trends and retention behaviors, allowing the service to tailor incentive programs that are not effective or addressing the primary factors influencing retention behavior.  These efforts can improve diversity accessions and the quality of those accessions, increase retention by addressing factors undermining motivation, and anticipate trends through improved data collection and analysis.

Summary

            The problem of low women and minority Naval Aviator retention beyond the minimum service requirement is not unique to Naval Aviation but is a significant concern that requires a holistic view of the factors that influence retention behaviors.  The impact of socioeconomic status and the subsequent education and development opportunities cannot be overlooked when seeking diversity in the Navy’s performance-based meritocracy.  Disadvantages, real or perceived, undermine individual motivation and organizational commitment when the demographic composition of the service’s successful leadership does not reflect diversity. It is not only a problem that women and minorities are leaving the service; in doing so, they may be reinforcing the narrative that Naval Aviation is a white man’s domain.

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