The Practicability and Ethics of Space Mining

Earth's finite resources are becoming increasingly strained. A modern-day gold rush is in swing, with companies vying for control of metals like Lithium, Cobalt, Nickel and Platinum - resources critical in the green energy transformation (Gifford, 2022; IEA, 2021). Unfortunately, the extraction of these metals is linked to exploitation and significant negative environmental impacts (Hund et al., 2020). Extraction and processing of materials and fuels cause up to 50% of global greenhouse gas emissions and 90% of biodiversity loss (United Nations Environment Programme and International Resource Panel, 2019). In response to these problems, researchers and billionaires are asking if asteroid mining is the answer (Cockburn, 2021). The question is - Can space mining can effectively reduce carbon emissions, or if it is just an ethically questionable fad? First, the financial practicality of space/asteroid mining will be discussed, followed by considering its ethical consequences through a governance review and systems collapse theory.?

Pipe-dream or practical??

Since the 70s, there has been ongoing research about mining resources in space, with NASA and other researchers debating the viability of such a venture (NASA, 1979). This debate has intensified with the recent development of more affordable space travel by SpaceX, making this prospect seem more attainable (Ansar and Flyvbjerg, 2022).

AstroForge, an Asteroid-Mining Startup, plans to validate its technology by launching a zero-gravity refinery demonstration to extract platinum from an asteroid-like sample in April 2023 (Gialich and Acain, 2023). To lower costs, they use SpaceX Falcon 9 rideshare missions and only target asteroids up to 1.5km in diameter (Alamalhodaei, 2022). With total funding of $13M, they focus on a small-scale, lightweight operation different from their predecessor Planetary Resources, which raised $50M but still found it too little (Abrahamian, 2019).? The technology is gaining momentum, but only time will reveal its scalability. Money is central to all asteroid mining operations.

Large-scale mining in space will likely need to be done by autonomous robots, which can be expensive. For instance, the Perseverance rover sent to Mars cost $2.4 billion (NASA, 2020). The lowest-cost resource-return project is likely China's Chang'e lunar lander, which returned 1,731 grams of moon rocks at about 104 million dollars per kilogram (Mann, 2019). However, if large-scale construction is to be done, a whole fleet of robots will be required, and developing such a fleet would be a huge financial investment for a field in its infancy. Consequently, few investors may be willing to commit for extended periods, especially considering the legal uncertainty surrounding private ownership in space.

The development of the space mining industry brings up concerns about the extensive extraction of raw materials and energy generation on Earth. It's important to understand that establishing large-scale space mining operations would require significant investments of resources and energy, which could worsen the depletion of Earth's already strained resources and have a greater impact on its ecosystems.

It is evident that countries and companies are amid a second space race. China has rapidly amped up its space capabilities in recent years by constructing its own space station, competing with ISS (Svyrydenko and Stovpets, 2020).

The State of the Space Industrial Base Report (2022) states China could surpass the USA in space capabilities by 2045. Meanwhile, on the commercial side, SpaceX and Amazon plan to launch 42,000 and 3,000 satellites, respectively (Pultarova and Howell, 2022). Global regulations governing the space economy are needed before the space race intensifies, as lax regulations have already resulted in space pollution.

Scientists are concerned that Kessler syndrome is approaching - a scenario where the amount of space junk in low Earth orbit is so high that collisions between objects result in debris, which could trigger a cascade of collisions that could render space activities impossible for decades (Drmola and Hubik, 2018).?

A small piece of debris around one millimetre in size caused a hole over 15 inches in diameter to a weather satellite. In 2009, a collision between two satellites, one of which was inactive, produced almost 2,000 pieces of debris which could cause further destruction to other satellites, highlighting the need for stringent laws around commercial activities in space (Garcia, 2021).?

Lieberman, Athanasopoulos and Hoerber (2023) state it is essential to consider the geopolitical power struggles of space activities to avoid militarising space. The UN’s Outer Space Treaty prohibits “space” ownership by nations, stating that exploration and use must benefit all mankind (United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, 1966). However, questions of how and who decides what counts as “benefitting all mankind” remain unanswered. While the treaty is binding for the countries that have signed it, the absence of policies means it cannot be enforced.

Several countries have established regulations enabling commercial space activities, promoting space capitalism. The USA has enacted the US Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act (2015), which allows for the private ownership of space resources. Similarly, Luxembourg has established a legal and regulatory framework that confirms private ownership of minerals extracted from Near Earth Objects (Anderson, Christensen and LaManna, 2018). While not specifically discussing space mining, the UAE has also passed a law that creates a favourable environment for private space companies (Space Policy and Regulations Directory, 2017). Milligan (2014) argues that it is essential to create an ethical framework for space exploration that prioritises cooperation and collaboration over competition, as private companies cannot be trusted to regulate themselves for the benefit of the entire community.

Evaluating potential consequences through the Lens of History

Regulations and governance have been slow to adapt to changing times. Our current global governance is not fit-for-purpose to deal with international challenges - from Climate change to health care (Deere-Birkbeck, 2009; European Environment Agency, 2011; Kaldor, 2016). The Fourth Industrial Revolution has caused a significant population to be left behind, exemplified by the fact that the richest 10% own over half of the global income, and the poorest 50% earn just 8% (European Commission, 2022; Xu, David and Kim, 2018). Given the limitations of the existing system, is it capable of accommodating the increased complexity associated with space mining?

Tainter’s (1998) systems collapse framework explains how societal challenges cause an increase in complexity. As complexity increases, so does the energy demand until every additional unit of resource becomes progressively more costly to acquire. Initially, people tend to mine in easily accessible and low-cost areas. Still, they eventually must turn to more difficult and expensive-to-reach locations due to the finite nature of resources.

The case of asteroid mining is a prime example of this; climate change makes mining on Earth problematic. However, the difficulty and associated costs of space mining are considerably higher than Earth mining. Consequently, the acquisition of each additional unit of resource becomes more expensive, and the costs associated with it will not be evenly distributed among all members of society.

All factors must be considered before plunging into space mining, as adding complexity is easier than eliminating it. Given that the individuals benefiting the most from the increased complexity (corporations, billionaires, global leaders) have no interest at all in allowing it to be reduced.

Exploiting space resources may further exacerbate existing wealth disparities, leaving resource-depleted nations with nothing while richer nations accumulate more wealth. Wenar and Gilbert (2021) discuss the “resource curse”, where a resource-rich country paradoxically underperforms due to a history of exploitation. An example of this is the Democratic Republic of Congo which was pillaged by numerous external factors, namely the Belgian king Leopold II forcing them to harvest rubber, the blood diamond rush of the 1990s and currently, cobalt mining in dangerous conditions using child labour (Mullins and Rothe, 2008; Kara, 2023).

Article 1 of the historic human rights treaty on civil and political rights declares that all people have the right to self-determination and the freedom to dispose of their natural wealth and resources as they please (United Nations General Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI), 1966). Yet, countries in the global south continue to suffer from poverty and resource exploitation because they do not control their resources. Once the resources of these nations have been depleted, they will be left with nothing, while wealthy nations will have the financial means to invest in asteroid mining. Space mining must include all parties to ensure that development leaves no one behind.

This age of space colonisation exhibits similarities to the historic European colonisation, characterised by a competitive race for territorial expansion and power, with political leaders prioritising short-term gains over long-term considerations. For instance, Italy hastily colonised Libya to avoid being left behind, leading to further conflict and losses on both sides (Finaldi, 2015). Smith (1776) opposed colonisation on ethical grounds and rightly predicted the East India Company was a loss-making enterprise that would have to be bailed out by the British monarchy.

Tainter (1988) cites the example of the Assyrian and Mongol Empires that showcases the downsides of society being overly reliant on perpetual growth. These empires crumbled when new conquests were no longer available. Tainter contends that capitalism can also be seen as a Runaway Train model due to the imperative of growth in publicly traded companies. The current system is already unfit for purpose, and replicating it with greater complexity only perpetuates a broken system.?

Conclusion?

Asteroid mining has the potential to be a viable energy source in less than 50 years, considering the rapid pace of technological advancement. However, the tendency of businesses and nations to act before considering consequences may hinder efforts to enact meaningful change on Earth. Some of the factors to consider when scaling out space mining are as follows:

• Geopolitical conflicts,
• Rising wealth inequality between the Global North and South
• Expanding a broken global system, leading to a potential collapse.?

Space mining would be promising if these potential issues were addressed. Otherwise, it is just another spurious solution that allows parties to continue with business as usual without halting climate change. The main takeaway from Taitler (1989) is that even with modern technological developments, the foundations of society are still vulnerable. If not careful, self-imposed crises may arise, leading to the collapse of societal systems.?

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