Pope John XXIII: The Cuban Missile Crisis & the rise of "Soft Power"
Introduction??
Almost 61 years later, to this day it is still present the relevance of the Cuban Missile Crisis in world diplomatic relations, especially for the United States, Cuba, and the Vatican. That is because this historic event marked not only a shift in the international image of all three countries but also the beginning of the end of the Cold War, bringing development, hope, and peace through the rise of the unipolarity of the United States, globalization of the world, multilateralism within international relations, but also new challenges that threaten a just and balanced world.?
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Ethno-nationalist conflicts, terrorism, transnational organized crime, proliferation of weapons of mass destruction despite the efforts to stop their spread, and regional conflicts are some of the security challenges that the current international framework is facing. However, from the post-Cold War and the Pope's speech, we also inherited a broader concept and representation of humanitarian intervention, which brought a new idea of 'responsibility to protect,' making the international community increasingly recognize the need to address human rights abuses and protect vulnerable populations, even within the sovereign borders of states. This situation opens even more possibilities for communication among countries.?
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To further understand the missile crisis, it is important to pay attention to the relations between the Church and both the United States and Cuba, as well as the framework of the Cold War and the context of the post-World War II era. These relations were determinant in the outcome of the nuclear conflict and in the construction of the current international framework.?
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Regardless of which institution or representative had a greater influence on the result of this crisis, as historic events are sensitive to small changes and actions taken by any party involved, the focus should be on the importance of the facts and the achieved result to better understand our current reality. To some extent, all parties had to cooperate directly or indirectly to reach an outcome that didn't involve a huge nuclear conflict.?
October 1962??
The Cuban Missile Crisis was a significant confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union over the presence of Soviet nuclear-armed missiles in Cuba. It took place in October 1962 and marked an 'acutely antagonistic period in U.S.-Soviet relations.' Later, it was considered the closest the world had ever come to global nuclear war and an important event in Khrushchev's fall from power in October 1964, as well as in the Soviet Union's determination to achieve, at least, nuclear parity with the United States.?
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Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev had pledged to defend Cuba with Soviet arms. However, he wrongly assumed that the United States would not take any actions to prevent the installation of Soviet missiles in Cuba, which could promptly reach the eastern United States within minutes if launched from Cuba.?
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John F. Kennedy, the United States president during most of the Cold War, first learned about the Soviet Union's missile shipments to Cuba in July 1962. On August 29th of the same year, U.S. intelligence received confirmation of new military construction and the presence of Soviet technicians from U.S. U-2 spy planes. Following that, the presence of a ballistic missile on a launching site was reported on October 14th. Faced with the threat that these pieces of information represented to U.S. security, Kennedy considered various options, including an immediate invasion of Cuba, air strikes on the missile sites, a blockade, and other diplomatic maneuvers. However, he decided to first impose a naval blockade on Cuba, referred to as a quarantine, to prevent military shipments from the Soviet Union. The Soviets simply altered their course to avoid the quarantine zone imposed by the United States.?
Amidst extreme tensions, messages were exchanged between Kennedy and Khrushchev, which in October 28 agreed to halt work on the missile sites and return the missiles in Cuba to the Soviet Union, under the condition that Kennedy would pledge that the United States would never invade Cuba. He agreed to the conditions and secretly promised to withdraw the nuclear-armed missiles stationed in Turkey, set by the U.S. in previous years. Over the following weeks, both superpowers fulfilled their promises, and by the end of November the crisis had its end. Cuba's communist president, Fidel Castro, was infuriated by the Soviet retreat, but was unable to take any action in that regard. Nevertheless, the crises served as a reminder of the devastating consequences that arms race can have due to the tensions between countries.??
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United States & the Catholic Church?
Driven by complex motivations and historical tensions, the United States had a key role in the missile crisis of 1962. Beyond ideological differences, a key factor behind the antagonism between the United States and the Soviet Union was their pursuit of hegemony over Latin America, which had escalated the conflict to a global scale, extending this rivalry to the relationship between the United States and the Catholic Church.??
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Theodore Roosevelt and Nelson Rockefeller saw the Catholic-majority in Latin America as a hindrance to American assimilation efforts, soughting a strategy to undermine this progression by Protestantizing the region through programs and foundations aimed at promoting American-friendly Protestantism. Then, the Americanization of Latin America coincided with its Protestantization, leading to stronger support for the United States’ foreign agenda. The success was later exported to other regions, aiming to expand the soft power and cultural influence.??
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However, history has shown that the United States and the Catholic Church have viewed each other primarily as adversaries rather than collaborators. Nevertheless, whenever there’s a threat to both side’s interests, they temporarily set aside their rivalry in the face of common threats or shared interests, such as combating Nazism, communism and addressing the Cuban Missile Crisis and the climate change. As expected from two of the most influential institutions in the world, the strategy that better suits their needs in times of uncertainty and threats is to cooperate, but in the absence of such circumstances, covert conflicts have persisted between the two powers.??
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Either way, there have been instances of cooperation, such as their joint anti-communist activities in Central and Eastern Europe. Overall, the historical relationship between the United States and the Catholic Church is characterized by a complex interplay of rivalry, negotiation, and shared goals.??
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Cuba, in the middle of the conflict??
Cuba played a pivotal role in the crisis. It was largely influenced by previous historical events and by its vulnerability to the U.S. military actions. The failed Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961, supported by the previous U.S. administration that was later abandoned by President Kennedy, unveiled Cuba’s military vulnerability, and emphasized its need for strengthening its security measures against the United States.??
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The Soviet Union, seeking to bolster its new ally, deployed troops, and technicians to Cuba, raising tensions to a dangerous level. While Kennedy demanded the removal of the missiles and initiated the naval quarantine, the world became anxious waiting for the Soviet response, making Khrushchev realize the gravity of the situation and leading him to opt for a peaceful resolution. The crisis concluded without escalating into nuclear war, leading to the installation of a hotline between Washington and Moscow and the signing of the Limited Test Ban Treaty in 1963. This tense standoff emphasized the importance of diplomatic solutions and ultimately contributed to global efforts to prevent future nuclear crises.?
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Holy See Diplomacy?
The Holy See, as a unique institution, has also played a significant role in the missile crisis of 1962, despite its distinctive nature and focus on religious and moral goals. Unlike other states, the Holy See does not defend temporal or material interests but instead represents the spiritual realm, encompassing over 1.3 billion Catholic faithful worldwide. The Holy See exercises its sovereignty solely in the spiritual realm and does not engage in geopolitical pursuits. Its primary mission is to defend the interests of the Catholic Church, protect the rights of Catholics, and ensure the freedom to worship without discrimination.??
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The Holy See's diplomatic efforts are characterized by its commitment to impartiality, although it can intervene through good offices or mediation if requested. While the Holy See's power is moral rather than coercive, its influence and the authority of the Pope to shape opinion are substantial.??
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The Holy See has consistently pursued a foreign policy rooted in principles that serve the common good. One of its fundamental principles is the rejection of war, and it has consistently condemned armed conflicts and advocated for disarmament, including nuclear and conventional weapons. Another principle revolves around respect for human dignity and human rights, encompassing the defense of life from conception to death. The Holy See seeks recognition of its authority over local Churches and strives to ensure the protection of its property and the freedom to practice the Catholic faith. Furthermore, the Holy See supports integral human development and promotes solidarity, justice, and sharing to address economic disparities and foster social progress. While the Holy See's foreign policy is driven by these principles, it avoids seeking geopolitical power and instead aims to serve other states and humanity in a disinterested and loving manner.?
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The Holy See's diplomatic efforts are distinctive, combining spirituality, moral understanding, and a commitment to peace and justice. Popes have historically played influential roles in global affairs, utilizing their pastoral words to create and shape public opinion. Pope John Paul II, in particular, exerted significant influence during his pontificate, contributing to the fall of the Soviet bloc through personal political engagement, effective communication, and spiritual leadership.??
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Pope Francis has continued this tradition, bringing renewed attention to the Catholic Church's message through his actions and speeches. His emphasis on issues such as refugees, environmental protection, and the dangers of unchecked globalization showcases his commitment to being a voice of conscience in a rapidly changing world. The Holy See's diplomacy remains unique and respected, relying on the resources of international negotiations to pursue its objectives while upholding its spiritual and moral mission.?
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In recent years, the Holy See has played a crucial role in facilitating the historic rapprochement between Cuba and the United States, demonstrating its ability to establish bridges and engage in discreet diplomacy. Through the mediation of the Archbishop of Havana and certain bishops from the United States, the Holy See acted as an intermediary, contributing to the normalization of relations between the two countries. The Holy See's diplomacy, characterized by seeking dialogue, refraining from taking sides, and maintaining a long-term perspective, may seem unconventional by contemporary diplomatic standards, but it garners respect even from the most powerful states. As the Holy See's diplomacy continues to evolve in the twenty-first century, its distinctive role and message continue to demonstrate their effectiveness in promoting peace, justice, and the common good.?
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Pope John XXIII??
Pope John XXIII, born Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli in Italy in 1881, pursued a life of religious service by serving as a priest, secretary to the Bishop of Bergamo and held various diplomatic positions. During World War I, he worked as a chaplain and built relationships with Christian communities as Apostolic Visitator in Bulgaria and as Apostolic Delegate in Turkey and Greece.??
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In 1944, he became the Nuncio in France, aiding prisoners of war and assisting Jews in escaping and, in the following year, Pope John became the Patriarch of Venice and later elected Pope. In his time as Pope, he convened the Second Vatican Council and initiated changes within the Church.??
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He passed away in 1963, leaving a legacy of humility, peace, and a dedication to Christianity, while his diplomatic contributions throughout his life were extensive, he always emphasized on communication as key to establishing harmony and had particularly notable participation during the Cuban missile crisis, as his efforts and influence have also played a crucial role in resolving the conflict and preventing a nuclear war.??
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The Speech?
As tensions were escalating between the Soviet Union and the United States, Pope John XXIII promoted the reconciliation between the two nations, leading to the end of the nuclear conflict. As part of his extraordinary mediation efforts, the Pope initiated a dialogue with the non-Catholic population in the Soviet bloc. On the second day of the Ecumenical Council, he addressed the ambassadors accredited to the Holy See, emphasizing the Church’s duty and the moral force of Christianity to promote truth, justice, and charity.??
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Pope John XXIII stressed the importance of working towards true peace, which involved respecting the human person and ensuring freedom of religion and worship. He called upon the representatives of heads of states to take decisive steps towards peace and encouraged them to continue meeting and engaging in discussions. The Pope urged them to reach just and generous agreements that they would faithfully observe and be prepared to make sacrifices necessary to save the world's peace.?
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By emphasizing the universal nature of the Church and the Council, Pope John XXIII highlighted its role in bringing salvation and enlightening answers to the agonizing problems of the day. He believed that the Council's proclamation of the good news of salvation to the world would contribute to the true progress of individuals and nations. The Pope's words and efforts aimed at fostering love, brotherhood, and harmony among people of different races and mentalities, creating an atmosphere of serenity where nations could work together for the betterment of humanity.?
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In summary, Pope John XXIII's passages during the Cuban missile crisis were key to creating reconciliation between the United States and Cuba and ending the nuclear conflict. His calls for peace, dialogue, and respect for the human person's dignity played a significant role in fostering understanding and promoting agreements that aimed to save the world's peace. By emphasizing the Church's universal mission and the importance of truth, justice, and charity, the Pope's words had a profound impact on diplomatic efforts and contributed to resolving the crisis peacefully.?
Peace on Earth?
Before the Cuban missile crisis, the Holy See was at a phase of self-contemplation and reorganization. Under the leadership of Pope John XXIII, the Catholic Church aimed to start the 20th century as a renewed institution while maintaining its traditions and identity, emphasizing a spirit of innovation and an ecumenical approach, where all people would be considered as members of the same family, which resonated with the globalization trend of the time.??
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This new perspective was presented in his papal encyclical “Pacem in Terris”, published in 1963, presenting a Catholic vision for the world and the right path to its prosperity. The encyclical called for a New World Order based on cooperation, trust, and the resolution of conflicts through negotiation rather than violence of any kind.??
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The Holy See played its role by averting a nuclear war between the United States and the Soviet Union. Pope John XXIII received a message from President Kennedy seeking assistance, and the Pope drafted a plea for peace that was read on Vatican Radio. The Pope's message called upon all governments to work towards peace and highlighted the unpredictable consequences of war.??
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This plea provided Soviet Premier Khrushchev with an opportunity to withdraw the missiles from Cuba without losing face, as well as to understand the gravity and weight of its decisions. The involvement of the Holy See, along with other diplomatic efforts, contributed to the peaceful resolution of the crisis.??
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In subsequent years, the Holy See continued to advocate for peace and promote its vision of a New World Order based on love, compassion, and cooperation. Although the papal encyclical and the efforts of the Holy See have not yet achieved the desired peace on Earth, their influence and messages have had a lasting impact on international relations. The Holy See's role in the resolution of the Cuban missile crisis demonstrated the importance of dialogue, negotiation, and the involvement of moral and spiritual leaders in addressing global conflicts. The involvement of Pope Francis in brokering the renewal of relations between the United States and Cuba in 2014 further showcased the ongoing role of the Holy See in facilitating diplomatic solutions and promoting peace.?
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Reconciliation process?
The reconciliation process between the United States and Cuba was aided by the involvement of Pope Francis and the Vatican. The Vatican served as a neutral broker in facilitating talks between the two countries, ultimately resulting in solutions acceptable to both parties. Pope Francis personally sent letters to President Barack Obama and President Castro of Cuba, urging them to put their differences behind them and establish diplomatic relations. The Vatican's position as a trusted party, with good relations with both countries, allowed for progress to be made.?
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The involvement of the Vatican in the reconciliation process demonstrates the power of religious diplomacy and the role that faith can play in resolving conflicts. Pope Francis, following in the footsteps of his predecessor Pope John XXIII, emphasized the need for peace and coexistence in his efforts. The Vatican's credibility and diplomatic influence, coupled with its opposition to the U.S. embargo against Cuba, helped to build trust with the Cuban government and facilitate the negotiations.?
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The positive outcome of the reconciliation between the United States and Cuba has generated hope and optimism among people, both in Cuba and around the world. It serves as an example of how diplomacy, guided by principles of peace, can overcome long standing conflicts. The Vatican's involvement not only brought about positive change in Cuba-U.S. relations but also instilled hope for peace in other troubled areas of the world. The role of the Vatican in mediating this historic reconciliation showcases its potential as a peacemaking entity on the global stage.?
US-Cuba relationship and the Holy See in the 21st century?
The relationship between the United States, Cuba and the Holy See in the 21st century has witnessed significant development and diplomatic efforts. Pope Francis played a crucial role in facilitating the rapprochement between Cuba and the United States, emphasizing the importance of reconciliation and dialogue.??
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In September 2015, Pope Francis embarked on a politically charged visit to Cuba and the United States. His arrival in Havana marked the beginning of a nine-day tour aimed at promoting the ongoing process of normalization between the two nations. The Pope praised the normalization of relations, which he viewed as a victory for the culture of encounter and dialogue over the divisive forces of the past. He urged political leaders to persevere on this path and utilize its potential as a testament to their commitment to peace and the well-being of their peoples.?
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During his visit, Pope Francis met with both Cuban President Raúl Castro and former President Fidel Castro. While Fidel Castro was unable to attend the welcome ceremony due to frailty, the Pope expressed his respect and consideration for him through Raúl Castro. The Pope's desire to meet Fidel Castro demonstrated his willingness to engage with different political figures and bridge divides. Additionally, the Pope's inclusive message extended to all Cubans, including those who could not be directly met, such as the unwell and political dissidents.?
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The significance of Pope Francis' visit was underscored by a phone call between President Raúl Castro and President Barack Obama on the eve of the Pope's departure. Both leaders commended the Pope's role in advancing relations between their countries and discussed future steps to ease tensions. The US announced plans to loosen restrictions on travel to Cuba and ease controls on money transfers, telephone communications, and internet business.?
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The Pope's visit generated anticipation and hope among Cubans, who saw it as an opportunity for positive change. Many Cubans desired stronger advocacy from the Pope regarding an end to the US embargo, while dissident groups and anti-government exiles in Florida hoped for him to speak out against restrictions on freedom of speech and worship. In his approach, Pope Francis employed a mix of low-key diplomacy and encouragement, maintaining his focus on building bridges and supporting the Cuban people with freedom and dignity.?
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In addition to fostering reconciliation between Cuba and the United States, Pope Francis' visit to Cuba highlighted the close ties between the Catholic Church and the country. He acknowledged the 80th anniversary of the establishment of relations between Cuba and the Catholic Church and emphasized the renewal of cooperation and friendship. The Pope also referenced the devotion to the patron saint of Cuba, Our Lady of Charity of El Cobre, as a symbol of hope and dignity for the Cuban people.?
The delicate nature of the Pope's visit to Cuba was recognized by Vatican officials, who acknowledged the historical balancing act between the Cuban government and the Holy See. The Church's previous efforts focused on fostering dialogue between the government and the opposition, advocating for openness while maintaining a cautious and respectful approach towards the regime. The visit of Pope Francis, along with the encouragement from both the Pope and President Obama, marked a turning point in history, leading to potential changes in Cuba.?
Overall, the 21st century witnessed the Holy See playing a significant role in facilitating the process of reconciliation between Cuba and the United States. Pope Francis' visit to Cuba and his subsequent address to the U.S. Congress further emphasized the importance of dialogue, the lifting of embargoes, and the promotion of openness between nations. The Holy See's engagement exemplified its commitment to fostering peace and reconciliation in the world.?
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Conclusion?
In conclusion, the outcome of the missile crisis of 1962 was greatly influenced by the Pope, as well as, Kennedy, together playing an important role in the current international relations of the world, further developing concepts such as soft power, later better explained by Joseph Nye on his analysis over the relations between the Catholic Church and China, and enhancing the communication as a key strategy to negotiations on all continued armed and violent conflicts.??
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The involvement of Pope XXIII and the Holy See in mediating the crisis demonstrated the immense moral authority and influence of the Pope, which continues to shape diplomatic relations today. The Holy See’s power, although difficult to measure, stems from its knowledge, the constancy of its values and principles, as well as to the trust it has been continually building throughout history through their unity in faith and in aiding all those in need. The consistency in following its values and principles, building a positive image, and fostering active communication with government and institutions worldwide, makes its influence broad and its leadership powerful by connecting people through their faith.??
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During the missile crisis, the alignment between interests of both United States and the Church, along with President Kennedy’s Catholic background, facilitated the positive intervention of the Holy See, while the diplomatic arrangements were done in a more private and non-public space, creating a sense of trust and security to the world while the situation was being negotiated.??
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Nevertheless, the Pope’s soft power derives from his moral authority and global reach, and it played a crucial role in averting a nuclear conflict, by being the third option where neither sovereign would seem defeated nor weaker than one another in the final resolution. By proposing a third option and leveraging his influence, the Pope provided an alternative path to the direct armed confrontation that both countries were seeming to consider at that stage.??
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The significance of the Pope’s intervention in this crisis, however, goes beyond the immediate resolution. It underscored the Holy See’s role as a non-competitive element in the international framework, wielding its soft power to influence nations based on shared principles and interests of protecting all people and in reaching prosperity. The Church’s intentions, rooted in compassion and the pursuit of common values created a sense of protection and influence, especially among nations with a significant Catholic following. Nevertheless, friction can arise from the Church’s interference, particularly in countries with strict control over religious freedom. The presence of the Holy See and the Church’s missions in such regions can challenge the government's hegemonic influence and their efforts to maintain control over people’s beliefs, and therefore, behavior.??
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The concept of soft power, exemplified by the Pope’s influence, holds great importance in contemporary international relations. The Catholic church, with its principles and values that resonate with individuals and societies, can strongly influence those who possess hard power, such as armies and territories. Despite lacking military strength, the Church’s soft power enables it to shape the decisions and actions of the nation to some extent.??
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Regardless, the continuity of the Church’s influence in the dynamics of international relations, alongside organizations like the United Nations remains essential. The Church's historic impact on altering the course of history during such moments of zero-sum “games”, for instance, wars and violations of human rights, has been significant. The 1962 missile crisis brought indeed greater awareness to the Holy See's mission and accomplishments, solidifying its diplomatic relevance in countries worldwide. Pope Francis continues the work initiated by Pope John XXIII, further strengthening the Church's influence and diplomatic priorities.?
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While armed conflicts persist, as evidenced by ongoing conflicts like the Ukrainian war, the avoidance of self-destruction during the missile crisis serves as a reminder of the Church's commitment to peace. The active participation of the Church in diplomatic relations represents a significant change for the Vatican, and the impact of Pope John XXIII's actions in the crisis cannot be overlooked.?
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The crisis highlighted the beginning of concepts like the “soft power”, demonstrating that moral authority, influence, and diplomatic relevance can and will continually shape global affairs. The Pope's intervention in the crisis showcased the Church's ability to offer alternatives and foster peace, emphasizing the importance of the Church's role in contemporary international relations. In summary, the outcome of the missile crisis of 1962 and the shifts in the international context and diplomatic relations of the Holy See have had a lasting influence on current international relations and how to mitigate greater risks involved.??
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