Paradoxes and Ironies at the Bedrock of Medieval Society

By:

Dr. Rhodora G. Magan, Associate Professor V

English Department, College of Education, Arts and Sciences

Cebu Technological University Danao

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The medieval era, often primarily associated with the Black Death following the period known as the “Medieval Warming,” witnessed Britain's population explosion from around 1.5 million to 5 million (Hubbard, 2011; Crowley & Lowery, 2000; Xoplaki et al., 2016; Robinson, 1959). Although labeled as the “Dark Ages” due to its various declines, this period saw the arrival of counter-mechanisms that shaped the true spirit of the time, which informs the argument of this essay. These mechanisms were aimed at sustaining survival, metaphorically and literally, and interestingly included, though not mainly, the regulation of brothels recognized for their social significance—a progressive framework at a time when food was essentially seen as a post-plague commodity or having cock-fighting as the sport of children. True to its nature, time eludes obstacles through a string of eclectic turnabouts that display human ingenuity spanning across a millennium.

One pandemonium cannot strip away the truth of this epoch, let alone its apogee alongside countless distinctiveness traceable to the networks of figures, places, objects, ideologies, and events conjured up to begin the journey on the Silk Road—a major crossroads of civilization. Familiar to almost all merchants at the time, it was the business juncture of the medieval world where various goods were traded between East and West. This confluence of cultures would have sparked several innovations known to man. Through this route, world civilization took on a dynamic twist, leading to the emergence of several elemental aspects of survival. Where travel thrived, stories flourished. Marco Polo’s accounts introduced a variety of flavors from the Eastern world to Europe, previously unknown. His dedication to travel writing aimed at depicting the world, albeit not always accurately (Coneys, 2019), contributed to sustaining a knowledge-based society, which was further enriched by the influence of Arabic literature, already established by the 12th century.

The predominant literature of the medieval era offers a range of masterpieces. From Boccaccio to Langland, it is not quite accurate to characterize this period solely as Chaucer's era, as he was heavily influenced by the genius of his predecessors, such as Giovanni Boccaccio, who gave the world The Decameron (1351). However, it is worth noting that Chaucer, through The Canterbury Tales (1476), played a significant part in revolutionizing the linguistic repertoire of society, transitioning from Old English, influenced by French after the Norman invasion, to Middle English, which allowed broader engagement with the text, including by those in the lower class. Chaucer's oeuvre not only captures the spirit of his time but also showcases his inspiration from Boccaccio's The Decameron to establish his own legacy and create a platform for a diverse range of cultural influences that would later inspire countless cultures worldwide. The frame narrative serves to encourage others to continue telling stories in a linear fashion, emphasizing the importance of connecting elements, as if there is a duty to carry on previous works and integrate them into newly crafted pieces. This establishes a relationship between narratives. Furthermore, it not only brings attention to this essential connection but also suggests universality in storytelling.

Even Petrarch understood this concept in his depiction of unrequited love in Sonnet 227. His reminiscence of fondness for Laura brought forth a love that transcends boundaries, shaping the world even before Shakespeare's time. Yvain, one of the earliest French literary heroes, experiences mental distress triggered by one-sided affection, leading to a state of madness and memory loss until he is cured by a compassionate lady who finds him in the woods. Where love operates, psychosis often follows. Descriptions of psychoses, frequently portrayed through characters like love-lorn knights, are common in works such as Old French romances and plays (Wright, 1939), offering insights into the cultural perceptions of mental health and approaches to treatment in medieval France.

The medieval era was not only a period rich in literature but also predominantly characterized by theological inquiry, driving people's curiosity about the metaphysical realm. Aristotle's philosophies birthed the climate of curiosity, prompting thinkers like Aquinas, Luther, and Calvin to explore ontology and spirituality. The theological responses [contrary to Aristotle’s ideas] to major quandaries, including the understanding of grace in salvation, stirred controversy and shaped societal divisions even up to this day. Dissension serves as a testament to the ultimate purpose of introducing the gospel to those elected unto eternal life through Jesus Christ. Luke 12:51 states, “Suppose ye that I am come to give peace on earth? I tell you, Nay; but rather division: For from henceforth there shall be five in one house divided.” This is paradigmatic of the Biblical standpoint on predestination, as Romans 8:30 declares, “Moreover whom he did predestinate, them he also called: and whom he called, them he also justified: and whom he justified, them he also glorified.” The concepts of predestination and election are intertwined, prompting scrutiny of the actions of those who oppose predestination while invoking Paul as a ‘brand ambassador’ to deceive others. Paul preached the Gospel to the Gentiles, urging them to “repent” (Mark 1:15) and “believe on the Lord Jesus Christ and thou shalt be saved” (Acts 16:31), emphasizing salvation through Jesus Christ alone. “For by grace are ye saved through faith; and that not of yourselves: it is the gift of God: Not of works, lest any man should boast” (Ephesians 2:8-9).

However, many who revere Paul in their churches fail to follow in his direction, instead prioritizing profiteering. They are those who reject grace as in Romans 11:6: “And if by grace, then is it no more of works: otherwise grace is no more grace. But if it be of works, then it is no more grace: otherwise work is no more work.” ?Had they adhered to Paul’s or Peter’s exhortations of the Gospel consistent with Biblical doctrine, they would not have rejected Christ as the only “way, the truth, and the life” (John 14:6). Though thousands profess they have done otherwise, yet do so in theory not in practice, for Matthew 7:21-23 says, "Not every one that saith unto me, Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven; but he that doeth the will of my Father which is in heaven. Many will say to me in that day, Lord, Lord, have we not prophesied in thy name? and in thy name have cast out devils? and in thy name done many wonderful works? And then will I profess unto them, I never knew you: depart from me, ye that work iniquity."

The passage critiques the notion that mere familiarity with God is insufficient without acknowledging man's inherent depravity, as Isaiah 64:6 states, “But we are all as an unclean thing, and all our righteousnesses are as filthy rags […]”. This necessitates the blood of Christ for reconciliation with God which Hebrews 9:22 proves: “[…] and without the shedding of blood there is no forgiveness.” This failure to accept the ultimate truth of man’s depraved punishable state is evident in Langland’s allegorical poem from the 12th century, Piers Plowman, where he emphasizes God’s mercy over His wrath (Suddaby, 1955). While the 22 visions in the text offer guidance for righteous living within God’s mercy for a communal rather than individual transformation (Garrison, 2017), this perspective overlooks the concept of judgment. This is contrary to John 3:16, which juxtaposes mercy and judgment: “For God so loved the world, that he gave his only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have everlasting life.”

The emancipation of man from paganistic rituals falls short of achieving its intended purpose, except for those who were able to grapple with the concept of predestination as thoroughly presented in the Bible, upon which Calvin’s exhortations rest. A translation of this change in mindset can describe the medieval era as a polemic against the moribund past that attempted to sustain an environment heavily promoting the Greek/Roman pantheons. However, remnants of these ancient beliefs persisted, as seen in Dante Alighieri’s The Divine Comedy (1314), which drew inspiration from Homer’s Iliad to depict different aspects of man’s eternal journey. Marco Polo’s accounts also shed light on the persistence of traditional Eastern practices, contrasting with the Western world's gradual shift towards a more empirical understanding of existence. Amidst this transition, society began to value practicality over spirituality, with many embracing practicality as a new form of religion. This trend was particularly evident in the later part of the medieval era, where the emphasis on a personal connection with the Divine waned in favor of a more humanistic communal spirit that prioritized individualism.

The religious quandary of the medieval era drove both men and women to delve into the intricacies of the human body to address enduring health inquiries. In Spain, female healers and midwives were integral parts of a diverse array of health practitioners operating within an open medical system (Juárez-Almendros, 2017). Their expertise was typically acquired through oral tradition and hands-on experience rather than formal education. Despite the prevailing notion of the body's sanctity in medieval times, and the emphasis on prioritizing the soul over the body (Classen, 2017), details regarding medical advancements by practitioners, including notable figures like Trotula, claimed to be Europe's first female physician, remain shrouded in debate. Trotula's contributions, alongside those of eleventh-century Arab physician Abu l-Hasan al-Muchtar ibn al-Hasan ib, author of a medical treatise (2017), often take a backseat to the dominance of ecclesiastical physicians and the prevalence of skilled lay practitioners in the field including a mix of "magicians, soothsayers, seers, and cranks" (Hammond, 1958; Castiglione, 1941; Knowles, 1949, p. 156; Juárez-Almendros, 2017). Despite challenges, various efforts aimed at advancing understanding of the human body persisted, reflecting an active pursuit of progress in the field of medicine.

In Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales, little is written about the doctor’s background except for a description difficult to miss—his fascination with gold: “For gold in physic is a fine cordial / And therefore loved he gold exceeding all” (www.tigerweb.towson.edu ). Many implications can be derived from Chaucer’s characterization of him. Primarily, this depiction suggests his morality while demonstrating his profound medical knowledge. This speaks volumes of his pursuit of lucrative business opportunities, as the value of gold implies, thus indicating a willingness to engage in deception if necessary. However, his strong presence in the tale suggests his erudite nature, as evidenced by his extensive knowledge of medical texts and practitioners, cementing his status as one who “knew the cause of every malady” and was known to have “often kept a patient from the pall / By horoscopes and natural magic” (www.tigerweb.towson.edu ). The doctor's versatility as a male character aligns with the patriarchal control over society's welfare, which typically excluded women from participation.

Another interesting fact is that in the Middle Ages, healthy teeth were highly valued for their beauty, which led to widespread dental hygiene practices. Despite common misconceptions, the rarity of sugar in the diet and the emphasis on tooth-friendly foods contributed to overall good dental health (O’Neill, 2017). However, as sugar became more accessible in Europe towards the end of the medieval period, it became a social class indicator. Europeans not only admired whiteness but also paid attention to one's scent. In Marco Polo’s travelogue, he described the musk gland of a deer, which was highly prized for its significance in perfumery (Bressanin, 2024). Scents based on musk have continued to captivate not only everyone but especially the elites. Furthermore, various natural ingredients like olive oil, musk, agrimony, walnut, red and white bryony, licorice, and animal fat, among others, were commonly used in medieval beauty care routines (Gül, 2023a).

Science and technology also played a significant role with the invention of the mechanical clock in the late medieval period (Bradbury & Collette, 2009). However, this invention alone cannot fully represent the extent of medieval society's advancement, as it was a thinking society that prioritized education. Four exemplary learning institutions emerged during this time: University of Bologna, University of Paris, University of Oxford, and University of Cambridge, highlighting the critical importance of education. The University of Bologna and the University of Paris were distinguished for their roles in the birth of European legal education in the 12th and 13th centuries. The former was famous for its “instruction in Roman law and canon law, while the latter was renowned for its schools of theology and liberal arts” (Clark, 1987, p. 654). Students' dedication to intellectual pursuits reflects their willingness to take risks for knowledge. Academics in various fields, including arts, medicine, law, and theology, invested significant time in knowledge cultivation, reflecting society's commitment to learning. Promoting progress was undeniably inherent in this paradigm.

In other parts of Europe like Germany, the consequent development of legal and administrative institutions was an important channel linking universities and greater economic activity (Cantoni & Yuchtman, 2014). Starting in the 12th century, medieval universities began facing challenges from outside influences such as the church and state, which shaped evolving views of corporate and individual academic freedom crucial for their growth as a separate estate in the medieval community (Clark, 1987). Clearly, today's concept of academic freedom was honed long before, and its inviolability harnesses great power amidst thinkers who have been advocating for social change.

In the pursuit of knowledge, it is natural to seek relevance between the knowledge acquired and its intended goals. To gain a better understanding, it is necessary to examine the intersection of governance. In medieval politics, a unique relationship between lords or kings and vassals is portrayed, where kings' methods of punishing unruly vassals included visiting and consuming their resources, reflecting traditions of hospitality (Brooks, 2020). On the contrary, this practice highlights a sense of camaraderie. Such a means of maintaining power deters any form of retaliation, a practice not commonly discussed as opposed to the common belief of inflicting pain on errant subjects. This practice, as depicted in works like The Song of Roland, where Charlemagne rules through his barons and vassals, illustrates a carefully imposed control accepted within the feudal system. ?The depiction of Roland's sacrifice serves as a lens through which the contemporary beliefs and ideals of its late eleventh and early twelfth-century knightly audience are illuminated.

The hierarchical structure serves as a mechanism of social contract, eliciting a unified response from everyone in the social structure, even if it means legitimizing acts condemned as sinful. This political stratagem in 1550 epitomized what it meant to be part of the social system, as England's regulation of brothels mirrored a broader European practice of tolerating and regulating prostitution that points to the “representation of loose women as a particular group of symbolic disability” (Juárez-Almendros 2017). ?This practice, as revealed by Karras (1989), often involved establishing licensed red-light districts which were not primarily for the protection of the prostitutes but rather for the maintenance of social order and were tolerated despite the doctrine treating them as defiled due to male demand.

Additionally, children were esteemed as such in medieval society, highlighting their inherent inclination towards play and challenging misconceptions about them being treated as adults (Gul, 2023b). This claim, heavily refuted by scholars (Ariès 1962; Wilson 1980), is supported by evidence showing that children were treated accordingly, but this would only invite a debate on cultural relativity. In the era of chivalry, it is no surprise that kids primarily played with toys made of sticks in the form of knights, horses, and spears that were reflective of parental activities (Orme 2001; Gul 2023b). This is the world they live in, and the truth is, “Medieval children were exposed to extreme violence from a young age; in a controlled, even festive, atmosphere, they were not traumatized by it but might take the opportunity it provided for play” (McGlynn, 2016, p.89). In 1211, the public mutilation of Thomas of Eldersfield was carried out enthusiastically, with the eyes thrown to the ground and the testicles used as footballs, while local boys kicked them playfully toward the girls (Bartlett, 2005). Not feeling anxious about what they did conveyed a sense of fulfillment, thus providing a quintessential picture of how the treatment of children during the time should be understood as not contrary to public view.

Their perception of fun is a far cry from what contemporary children enjoy. Generally, boys were urged or pushed to participate in violent sports as part of their preparation for potential involvement in conflicts or wars, as this was considered widespread and highly significant (McGlynn, 2016, p.88). Their preparation for warfare is just one of the many foundations of their involvement in politically motivated gang wars following the usurpation of Richard II in 1400 (Thompson, 1990), which would have been akin to today’s youth movement. More interestingly is the children's crusade led by Nicholas and other children who fought bravely at Acre in the Holy Land (Schneiderman, 2008; Munro, 1914). Virtually everyone agrees that the medieval era is a stronghold of ideologies. The way children were brought up was contingent on how society was curated by time.

The portrayal of the medieval era should encompass its richness in various aspects such as literature, education, philosophy, innovation, and politics, rather than being viewed narrowly. These elements evolved over time and profoundly influenced societal shifts, paving the way for the Renaissance and beyond. The medieval period exhibits the ability to transcend events that could have led to its collapse. The Black Death, in particular, was significant in shaping the latter half of the millennium. If treated as a structure with the element of continuity, the concept of "collapse" might manifest as the foundation of survival. Starting over, therefore, would not equate to progress, as it would negate the value of transcendence, which requires the remnants of time to be carried over into the new cycle of continuity. The medieval manifestation of man's needful confrontation with his creator, albeit lacking Biblical accuracy, could be used to manifest the period's realization that any form of active development is contingent on how society or the individual presupposes desired outcomes in a linear progression. Linearity in time teaches that there is an ultimate goal for every man, of which medieval intellectuals had become so wary that it created ripples through time up to the present. Thus, the medieval age continues to enthrall people across time and space.

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