An Overview of the Pentateuch

The first five books of the Old Testament (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy) form a collection of books commonly referred to as the Pentateuch. In Judaism, these books are understood as the Torah, and this collection is also often referred to as the books of Moses. The Pentateuch is a collection of Narratives, Laws, and rituals of the followers of Yahweh, also known as the people of Israel, Understanding the Pentateuch is foundational to understanding God, the people of Israel, and the entire Cannon of scripture. The Pentateuch spans over 2500 years and is rich in history. 

Hermeneutical Methods & Reading Strategies

The books of the Pentateuch can be broken into two parts. Part one explains the origins of the earth and humankind, mans purpose, and mans fallen nature. Section two describes how through Abraham, Israel becomes Gods covenant people. Within these two parts, we find two main literary genres of the Pentateuch: narrative, and law. The Pentateuch also introduces some of the earliest forms of ancient poetry and ritual worship. 

Misunderstanding how these genres function can lead to the misreading of the biblical text. Readers of the Bible often struggle to interpret a text accurately, because they see the book through their perspective rather than its original context and intended meaning. This practice is known as eisegesis. Through gaining a better understanding of literary structure, one can ultimately prevent themselves from practicing eisegesis. 

Narrative

  The vast majority of the Pentateuch is biblical narrative. In short, biblical narrative is the retelling of Gods story. The Torah is the beginning of that story. Gary Edward Schnittjer in The Torah Story says this about the Torah narrative: 

“The Torah narrates for us the creation and fall of humankind. It situates the human world in relation to its Creator. Readers learn who they are in relation to Yahweh, humanity, the chosen family of Israel, the nations, and the Messiah.”

Ultimately we understand much of who we are, who our Creator is, and how we relate to him through the Pentateuch. 

It is important to remember that biblical narrative is not the event itself. Instead, it is the retelling of an event. It is also writing about a specific group of people, however, composed for a different group of people. Through the retelling of the creation, and the people of Israel we can begin to form a theology of who we are and who God is. 

Inside the narrative of the Pentateuch, we have thousands of years of poetry and prayers. In reading these text, we must use careful analysis paying attention to the spelling of words, their original expressed meaning, and sentence structure. Hebrew poetry differs greatly from modern poetry in both rhyme and meter. Within the narrative of the Pentateuch, we see many different literary devices used. Some of the more common are climax, comparison, contrast, bracketing, numerical groupings, parallelism, and wordplay. These devices serve a specific purpose in the retelling of the Torah. They help us interpret and understand the narrative, in ways that merely retelling cannot accomplish.

Law

  Second, the Pentateuch introduces us to the genre of biblical law. In the Pentateuch, we have many recordings of legal materials and commands given by God for his people to follow. When his people follow these commands, they are considered just and righteous. When they do not obey these commands they are considered unrighteous and unjust. While God does give commands in Genesis, the law is found primarily in the latter four books of the Pentateuch (Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy).  

Often the word Torah itself is translated as law. This translation is confusing and can be misleading. The truth is the word Torah can have multiple meanings and is used various ways in the Old Testament, and throughout all of scripture. Torah can be teaching or instruction, commands that must be obeyed, or guidance on how to live in a specific situation.

Law in the Pentateuch expresses itself in three different forms: unconditional imperatives, curses, and sentences that relate to crimes. These forms of laws are not unique to the Israelites they parallel laws of other cultures of the Ancient Near East. However, Jewish law must be interpreted through the covenant made between Yahweh and the Israelites. Through this covenant and its conditions, the Israelites are blessed. 

Within the Pentateuch we are also exposed to the earliest rituals of the Israelites. In these Rituals Yahweh is very clear on how he wants to be worshiped. This was something that contrasts significantly with other gods of the Ancient Near East. 

History and Context

Understanding the history and context of the Pentateuch is incredibly essential. Who wrote the Pentateuch? how do we date this ancient Hebrew text? how does the geography affect the narrative? The five books of the Pentateuch span from the creation narrative to the death of Moses. Dating of the Pentateuch can be challenging in that many people debate the exact creation date of the earth. 

Authorship

In modern western literature, it is very common to find the name of the author at the beginning of their work. However, in other times and context, this information is not as readily available. This is true about the Hebrew scriptures. This very well could be a theological claim that God is ultimately the real author of scripture. If God is the true author, the human author becomes less important.

The Pentateuch is no exception to this rule. Within the Pentateuch, there is no mention of authorship. However, throughout much of the Old Testament, and even the New Testament, the Pentateuch is referenced as “The Books Of The Law of Moses.” While this terminology can be used to describe the entire Old Testament it is primarily used to describe the books of the Pentateuch. This description is the primary support for Moses as the singular author of the Pentateuch. However, a better interpretation of this phrase would be to see the reference to Moses as an identification marker, rather than as a notion to him as the author; that is that Moses is the central human figure in the narrative of the Pentateuch.

So while historically it has been taught that Moses is the author of the Pentateuch, many items within the Pentateuch itself have caused scholars to question this claim. Many of these questions are centered around the time lapse between an event happening and its record keeping within the Pentateuch itself. The clearest example of this is Moses death in Deuteronomy thirty-four. If Moses is the author how could he record his death? Also, many narratives within the Pentateuch seem to be duplicated and told from a slightly different perspective highlighting different aspects of the story. Lastly, The Pentateuch has many different literary styles present and vocabulary differences. 

These concerns have led scholars to consider that there potentially could be more than one author of the Pentateuch. The most common alternative understanding to the authorship of the Pentateuch is known as the Documentary Hypothesis. Documentary Hypothesis is the idea that a few different authors formed the Pentateuch over thousands of years. This idea allows for there to be different literary elements present, mixed use of vocabulary and provides room for contradicting narratives. However, this theory has its issues, and as more researching is being done arguments around the authorship are continually evolving. All that one can conclude is that any method used to determine the origin of the Pentateuch must be held loosely. 

Dating & Chronology

The five books of the Pentateuch narrate a time span from creation to the death of Moses. Many speculate the age of our earth (creation), creation estimates range anywhere from thousands to billions of years. So while one can estimate using different methods of dating it is impossible to positively state the age of the earth; therefore it is impossible to date the starting of the narrative of Pentateuch. Instead, historians have chosen to focus on the dating of the call of Abram to the death of Moses. These events fall into what is known as the Middle Bronze to Late Bronze Age of Ancient Near Eastern history. This would date the patriarchal period from 2,000 to 16,000 B.C. and Moses and the Exodus from 1,500 to 1,200 B.C. 

  The Chronology of the narrative of the Pentateuch is much debated. Some Scholars place the events of the Pentateuch in order based on their appearance in the scriptures. This can be problematic. The Hebrew text is often ambiguous with dating and data. Deciding on the chronological order of the narrative of the Pentateuch comes down to two questions. What role does archeology play? Secondly, what role does comparative history play in the literary study of the Pentateuch? Ultimately, whatever dating and order one lands on for the Pentateuch, it is best to hold that position loosely. 

Geography

  The entire Old Testament took place in the Ancient Near East in what is known as the Fertile Crescent. This area includes the Nile River valley, Delta, the narrow plains along the Mediterranean coast of Syro-Palestine, and the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys. The Fertile Crescent provided an excellent place for a thriving civilization. The origins of the Pentateuch took place in what is known as Mesopotamia (between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers). We see Abraham begin his journey in Ur and travel all the way to Canaan where the narrative sits for the rest of Genesis. 

Exodus begins in Egypt while the Israelites are in slavery for 400 years. Then Moses leads the Israelites from Egypt to Mt Sinai where he receives the Torah. This is the primary setting for both Exodus and Leviticus. Then due to lack of faith rather than resting in the promise land the Jews wander in what is believed to the land east of the Red Sea. Lastly, the book of Numbers takes place east of the River Jordan. 

Theology of the Pentateuch

While the entire Pentateuch is rich in theology collectively, each book presents a different theological theme. Through the Pentateuch we begin to develop a picture of who God is, and who we are. This retelling of the Hebrew narrative is foundational in developing a biblical theology. Without proper understanding of the Pentateuch, one cannot understand their place in this world.  

Genesis: Creation, Sin, Covenant. 

The Book of Genesis can be broken up into two parts chapters 1-11 and chapters 12-50. The first section of the book shows us the need for a covenant made between God and man, while the latter half focuses on the formation of that covenant. 

The Creation narrative introduces us to God and the purpose of man. Genesis shares that mans purpose is to be in dominion over all of creation, as image bearers of God. That is to emulate God in all decision making. The Creation Narrative also introduces us to sin. When Adam & Eve disobeyed God, they were punished and separated from God. This ultimately began a pattern of disobedience to God by man, that is constant between God and his followers throughout the entire story of Genesis (and still today). Sin and separation cause the need for the covenant made between God and humanity.

  The Bible is clear that God does not choose Abram because he is righteous, God chose Abraham as an act of Grace. This choice made by God establishes Isreal as Gods chosen people. The Covenant made to Abraham found in chapter twelve states: “And I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you and make your name great so that you will be a blessing. I will bless those who bless you, and him who dishonors you I will curse, and through you, all the families of the earth shall be blessed.” This covenant is also echoed in chapter fifteen to show the unconditional nature of the covenant made between God and Abraham. The Covenant is the foundation and backdrop for all other promises made by God. Blessing comes from the Covenant. Every Theological theme should be seen through the lens of the Covenant.

Exodus: Deliverance & Covenant Keeping

The first theological theme found in the book of Exodus is about God’s deliverance. It would be easy for a reader to question God’s faithfulness while his people are in captivity for hundreds of years. However, God shows his commitment to rescuing his people through the call of Moses. God promises to free them from Egyptian rule, be in community with his people, and provide land and prosperous life. While Moses is faithful to Gods call, ultimately God is the one who does all the work and deserves all the glory. It is vital to see Exodus through the lens of God keeping his Covenant with Isreal. God even states as much in his call to Moses in Exodus Chapter six, that I swore to give to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. 

In Exodus, we are also introduced to the ten commandments, and the tabernacle. Both of these are fulfillments of God’s Covenant. The Decalogue is patterned after a Suzerain-Vassell treaty. The ten commandments are an extension of Gods grace to the Israelites and bring social order. Today, many see the Ten Commandments simply as rules, but the Israelites understood that this was an act of grace from God, and they received them with grateful hearts. Lastly, in chapter twenty-five we are introduced to the Tabernacle. The Tabernacle is a literal representation of Gods presence on earth with his people. In part, this restored the fellowship of God and man in the Garden. 

Leviticus: Holiness

The primary purpose of Leviticus is to teach the reader God’s design for holiness and holy living. The first ten chapters of Leviticus focus on the procedures of providing a sacrifice to Yahweh and the last seventeen chapters teach about how these practices translate to holiness in daily living. Through Leviticus we learn that holy sacrifices and offerings, as well as the priest, take the place of the sinful. This is the essence of atonement. One becomes holy through substitution, that is, substituting the clean for the sinful. So, God desires for the Israelites to be holy, but it is ultimately God providing the spotless sacrifice that is responsible for holiness. This is the groundwork that leads to Jesus as the sacrificial lamb. It is also important to remember that Priests are holy as a consequence of their appointment by God. God grants them holiness so that they can carry out the sacrifice. Ultimately, the purpose of Hebrew sacrifice was to worship God and to preserve God’s presence in their midst.

All of these principles instructed by Yahweh would have been clearly understood by the Israelites to relate to their daily lives. Through understanding the sacrificial system, the Israelites understood their sinfulness, need for substitutionary atonement, and their hearts were turned towards repentance. teaching how to sacrifice daily, and how to love and serve one another.

Numbers: God is faithful, and Israel is not

Numbers is the most challenging book in the Pentateuch to understand. It is filled with many different literary genres and materials. Inside, it posses laws, censuses, narrative, and poetry. However, while Numbers can be difficult to interpret, it provides a vivid picture of Israel’s relationship to Yahweh. What we learn through numbers is that God is faithful, and Israel is often not (just as we are often not faithful). Yahweh is patient, constant, and cares for his people, but due to Israel’s sin, they constantly wander from Yahweh’s design for holy living. Israel in Numbers is a nation that is continuously fighting, grumbling and complaining, yet God remains faithful. We learn through Numbers that disobedience to Gods commands is foolish, and always leads to despair. 

In Numbers, we also learn that God can and will work outside of ordinary means. While God often respects human institutes and structures, he is willing to instill systems and structures within the Hebrew people that will go against cultural norms. This begins to introduce a morality in the Hebrew nation that, stands in opposition ti other nations. 

Deuteronomy: A Renewed Covenant

Deuteronomy presents the last words of Moses as he spoke to the people of Israel on the plains of Moab. Its purpose is to two-fold: to formalizes the covenant that Israel entered into with the Lord at Sinai, and to provide the second generation of Israel an opportunity to renew the covenant made between Yahweh and Israel. In essence, Deuteronomy takes the Ten Commandments and fleshes them out in a way that explains the spirit and intention behind them. The structure of the book itself follows the order of the Ten Commandments. 

Through Deuteronomy, we once again are given the proper perspective on how to understand the law. The Law and grace go hand and hand. God giving the Law was an act of God’s grace. Through God giving the law and the history recorded in Deuteronomy, we begin to develop a theology about who God is, and who we are. Deuteronomy serves as a unique vehicle to show God’s self-revelation to the people of Israel. 

Spiritual formation & Application within the Pentateuch

As stated before, the Pentateuch is the foundation for understanding who God is and how we relate to him. In our personal lives we often mirror the relationship between God and Israel. This isn’t to say that we are to only look to the Pentateuch for personal reflection. However, through striving to learn something about the Israelites nature we learn about our human life. 

Created in the Image…

  First, in Genesis, we learn what our intended purpose is. We are created “in the Image of God," and are put in dominion over all the earth. Often we view these two statements as separate things, but the instruction to rule over the earth must be closely tied to our unique design as image bearers. In all ruling and decision making, we must ask as an image bearer of God, “how must I make this decision?” We often struggle to rule properly as image bearers due to our sinful nature. I think it is purposeful that God describes first the angels, then the humans, and last the animals. This puts into perspective that we are spiritual beings, with animalistic desires (sin). Just as the Israelites constantly waiver away from holiness to sinfulness, we do the same. So like the Israelites we must cling to God’s holy instruction. 

Law & Gospel

  As stated before, through correct understanding of the Pentateuch we understand the purpose of the law, that the law was an act of Grace from God. Ultimately, the law was not meant to achieve righteousness. It was to remind the Israelites the need for a savior and to show how God desires to be worshiped. True salvation requires a completely pure sacrifice, and that sacrifice is Jesus. 

 However, we still must follow Gods commands. Through following Gods commands, we live in better community, understand how God manifests himself on this earth, and worship God both corporately and in our personal lives. The Apostle Paul in his letter to the Galatians wrestles the purpose of the law for the Gentiles. Ultimately, he says that it is not necessary for the Gentiles to practice the law for salvation, but it is beneficial for them to follow the commands of God. Through understanding the Torah, we are forced to combat our desire to worship things outside of God and are reminded to repent and turn back to Jesus. 

  Lastly, Jesus was a fulfilling of the Abrahamic covenant, not a second covenant. Therefore, we must still pay attention to the commands of the old testament, but understand their purpose in light of Jesus. This does not mean that their purpose changed, it means that the Israelites did not have the full understanding of what the ultimate objective of the law was in practice. It is as Paul says in Romans, "what they once saw through a veil they may now see clearly.”

God is Faithful

Lastly, God is constant and unchanging. God is incredibly faithful. The reader does not get far into the Pentateuch without seeing humanities failure to follow God. The Pentateuch shows the constant cycle of a covenant made by Yahweh with Israel, God keeps his side of the deal, and Israel fails to keep theirs.

 God keeps his promises, even when our circumstances seem bleak. The Covenant made with Abraham was fulfilled, the Israelites were delivered from captivity, and they received their promised land. At times in the story none of these things seemed possible, and yet God accomplishes all he sets out to do. 

This should remind us that God is faithful in our own lives. That when we fail God, his presence and faithfulness is unwavering. That when our circumstances seem bleak, that God is still going to remain present, constant and faithful. 

Works Cited

Alexander, T. Desmond, and David W. Baker. 2003. Dictionary of the Old Testament-- Pentateuch. Downers Grove, Ill. : InterVarsity Press, c2003. https://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.biola.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat04317a&AN=bio.b1114736&site=eds-live.

Barton, John, and John Muddiman. 2010. The Pentateuch. [Electronic Resource]. Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford ; New York : Oxford University Press, 2010. https://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.biola.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat04317a&AN=bio.b2052346&site=eds-live.

Hill, A. E., & Walton, J. H. (2010). A Survey of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.

Schnittjer, Gary Edward. 2006. The Torah Story : An Apprenticeship on the Pentateuch. Grand Rapids, Mich. : Zondervan, c2006. https://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.biola.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat04317a&AN=bio.b1256248&site=eds-live.

Ska, Jean Louis, and Pascale Dominique. 2006. Introduction to Reading the Pentateuch. [Electronic Resource]. Winona Lake, Ind. : Eisenbrauns, 2006. https://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.biola.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat04317a&AN=bio.b2482401&site=eds-live.