Nuclear Energy in Australia

This article explores the potential of nuclear power as a viable energy source for Australia. It delves into the legal history, technological advancements, and global nuclear power usage, while also comparing nuclear power to other energy sources in terms of electrical base load power, environmental, safety, and economic benefits. Furthermore, the article examines fusion and fission nuclear power, recent developments in reactor design, safety and waste management, as well as the areas for improvement and risks associated with nuclear power. The article also offers policy suggestions to enable the development of nuclear power in Australia and identifies the best locations for nuclear power plants in each Australian state. Lastly, it estimates the percentage of nuclear power required to meet Australia's net-zero carbon emission target by 2050 and highlights leading companies in nuclear power engineering, construction, and operation.

Why Nuclear power is a potential positive for Australia

Australia, a country rich in uranium reserves, has long debated the viability and desirability of nuclear power as a domestic energy source. With increasing concerns about climate change and a growing demand for clean and reliable energy, nuclear power has emerged as a potential solution to meeting Australia's energy needs. This article will examine the legal, technological, and environmental aspects of nuclear power in Australia and consider its future prospects.

A legal history

The legal history of nuclear power in Australia can be traced back to the early 1900s, with the establishment of the Australian Atomic Energy Commission (AAEC) in 1952 as the primary governing body for nuclear research and development. The AAEC was later replaced by the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO) in 1987.

Over the years, several key pieces of legislation have been enacted at both the federal and state levels to govern nuclear power in Australia:

• The Atomic Energy Act 1953 (Cth) established the AAEC and outlined its functions and responsibilities.
• The Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Act 1998 (Cth) established the Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA), which is responsible for regulating nuclear and radiation safety in Australia.
• The Nuclear Non-Proliferation (Safeguards) Act 1987 (Cth) implemented Australia's obligations under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT).
• The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth) requires federal approval for nuclear actions, including the construction and operation of nuclear power plants.
• State-specific legislation, such as the Nuclear Activities (Prohibitions) Act 1983 (SA), bans the construction of nuclear power plants in certain states.

An engineering and technological history

The engineering and technological history of nuclear power began with the discovery of nuclear fission in the late 1930s. In 1942, the first controlled nuclear chain reaction was achieved under the leadership of Enrico Fermi in the United States. This marked the beginning of the development of nuclear reactors for military purposes during World War II, which later transitioned to civilian use in the 1950s.

The first commercial nuclear power plant was built in the United Kingdom in 1956. The United States, France, and the Soviet Union followed suit, leading to rapid global expansion of nuclear power in the 1960s and 1970s. During this period, several different reactor designs were developed, including pressurized water reactors (PWRs), boiling water reactors (BWRs), and heavy water reactors (HWRs).

In the following decades, advancements in reactor technology focused on improving safety, efficiency, and waste management. The introduction of passive safety systems, advanced digital control systems, and modular construction techniques has led to the development of Generation III and III+ reactors, such as the AP1000, EPR, and ABWR.

More recently, research and development have focused on Generation IV reactors, which aim to further improve safety, sustainability, and economic competitiveness. These reactors include gas-cooled fast reactors (GFRs), very high-temperature reactors (VHTRs), and molten salt reactors (MSRs), among others.

Nuclear power worldwide

As of 2021, there were 442 nuclear power reactors in operation in 32 countries, with the United States, France, China, Russia, and Japan accounting for the largest share of global nuclear power generation. Several countries, including China, India, and Russia, have ambitious plans for expanding their nuclear power capacities, while others, like Germany and Belgium, have decided to phase out nuclear power.

Recent legislative changes have enabled the development of nuclear power in several countries. For example, the United Arab Emirates enacted the Federal Law by Decree No. 6 of 2009, which established a legal framework for the peaceful use of nuclear energy, leading to the construction of the Barakah nuclear power plant. Similarly, in 2018, Poland passed the Act on the Preparation and Implementation of Investments in Nuclear Power Facilities and Radioactive Waste Management Facilities, paving the way for the development of the country's first nuclear power plant.

Comparisons to other forms of energy

Compared to other energy sources, nuclear power offers several advantages:

• Electrical base load power: Nuclear power plants can operate continuously, providing stable and reliable base load power. Renewable energy sources like solar and wind are intermittent and require energy storage solutions to maintain grid stability.
• Environmental benefits: Nuclear power has a low carbon footprint, emitting approximately 12 g CO2-equivalent per kWh of electricity produced, similar to wind power and significantly lower than coal and natural gas.
• Safety: Although nuclear accidents such as Chernobyl and Fukushima have raised concerns about the safety of nuclear power, the overall safety record of the industry is comparable to other energy sources when considering deaths per unit of energy produced.
• Economic benefits: While the upfront costs of constructing nuclear power plants are high, their long operational lifetimes and low fuel costs can result in competitive levelized costs of electricity (LCOE) compared to other energy sources.

Fusion Vs. Fission

Nuclear fission is the process by which the nucleus of an atom is split into two smaller nuclei, releasing a large amount of energy. This is the process used in current nuclear power plants. In contrast, nuclear fusion involves combining two light atomic nuclei to form a heavier nucleus, also releasing a significant amount of energy. Fusion power has the potential to provide virtually limitless, clean energy with minimal waste, but the technology is still in the experimental stage and has yet to be demonstrated on a commercial scale.

Specific Technological developments in reactor design, safety, and waste management

Reactor design: Generation III and III+ reactors, such as the AP1000 and EPR, incorporate passive safety features that rely on natural processes like gravity and convection to cool the reactor core in case of an emergency. These designs also incorporate advanced materials and construction techniques to improve efficiency and reduce construction times.

Safety: The introduction of probabilistic risk assessment (PRA) has enabled a better understanding of the risks associated with nuclear power plants and has led to the implementation of safety upgrades to existing reactors. Furthermore, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has established a comprehensive set of safety standards and guidelines to ensure the safe operation of nuclear facilities worldwide.

Waste management: Advances in waste management include the development of dry cask storage systems for spent fuel, the implementation of deep geological repositories for long-term storage of high-level radioactive waste, and research into advanced fuel cycles, such as the integral fast reactor (IFR) and the thorium fuel cycle, which aim to reduce the volume and radiotoxicity of nuclear waste.

Areas for improvement and risks

Despite the advancements in nuclear power, there are still areas for improvement and risks to consider:

• Public perception and acceptance: The history of nuclear accidents has led to public apprehension about the safety of nuclear power. Transparent communication and community engagement are crucial to addressing these concerns.
• Proliferation risks: The potential for the misuse of nuclear materials and technology for weapons purposes remains a concern. Robust international safeguards and strict export controls are necessary to mitigate these risks.
• Waste management: Although progress has been made in waste management, the long-term storage of high-level radioactive waste remains a challenge, and continued research and development are necessary.
• Economic competitiveness: The high upfront costs of nuclear power plants and the increasing competitiveness of renewable energy sources may hinder the growth of nuclear power in some markets.

Policy suggestions/changes that would enable nuclear power to be developed in Australia

To enable the development of nuclear power in Australia, the following policy changes could be considered:

• Repeal or amend state-level legislation prohibiting the construction of nuclear power plants.
• Establish a clear and predictable regulatory framework for the licensing and construction of nuclear power plants.
• Implement policies to incentivize investment in nuclear power, such as loan guarantees or a carbon pricing mechanism.
• Foster international collaboration and knowledge sharing to support the development of domestic expertise in nuclear power.
• Engage with local communities and stakeholders to address concerns about safety, waste management, and environmental impacts.

Where to build in Australia?

Potential locations for nuclear power plants in Australia should consider factors such as proximity to the electricity grid, availability of cooling water, and geological stability. Some possible locations include:

• New South Wales: The Central Coast, near existing power infrastructure and with access to seawater for cooling.
• Victoria: The Latrobe Valley, close to existing power plants and benefiting from existing transmission infrastructure.
• Queensland: The Darling Downs, which offers access to the electricity grid and cooling water from the Great Artesian Basin.
• South Australia: The Eyre Peninsula, with access to seawater for cooling and proximity to existing power infrastructure.
• Western Australia: The southwest region, near existing power infrastructure and with access to seawater for cooling.

Net-zero targets

Achieving net-zero emissions by 2050 would likely require a diversified energy mix, including renewable energy, energy storage, and potentially nuclear power. The exact percentage of nuclear power required would depend on several factors, including the growth in energy demand, the rate of deployment of renewable energy sources, and improvements in energy efficiency. A comprehensive analysis of Australia's energy system and decarbonisation pathways would be necessary to determine the optimal mix of energy sources.

Leading companies in Nuclear Power with respect to Front End Engineering & Design, Construction, and Operation

Leading companies in the nuclear power industry include:

• Westinghouse Electric Company: Designer of the AP1000 reactor and provider of nuclear fuel, services, and plant design.
• Framatome: Designer of the EPR reactor and a major supplier of nuclear fuel and services.
• General Electric-Hitachi: Designer of the AB WR and PRISM reactors, as well as a supplier of nuclear fuel and services.
• Rosatom: Russia's state-owned nuclear corporation, responsible for the construction and operation of VVER reactors, as well as nuclear fuel supply and services.
• Korea Electric Power Corporation (KEPCO): Designer of the APR1400 reactor and involved in the construction and operation of nuclear power plants.
• China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC): A key player in the construction and operation of China's nuclear power plants, as well as the development of the Hualong One reactor.

References

1. Australian Atomic Energy Commission Act 1953 (Cth)
2. Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation Act 1987 (Cth)
3. Atomic Energy Act 1953 (Cth)
4. Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Act 1998 (Cth)
5. Nuclear Non-Proliferation (Safeguards) Act 1987 (Cth)
6. Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth)
7. Nuclear Activities (Prohibitions) Act 1983 (SA)
8. Federal Law by Decree No. 6 of 2009 (United Arab Emirates)
9. Act on the Preparation and Implementation of Investments in Nuclear Power Facilities and Radioactive Waste Management Facilities (Poland)
10. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), "Nuclear Power Reactors in the World," 2021 Edition.
11. World Nuclear Association, "World Nuclear Power Reactors & Uranium Requirements," April 2021.
12. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), "Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation," 2011.
13. United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR), "Sources, Effects and Risks of Ionizing Radiation," 2016.
14. Hirschberg, S., et al., "Sustainability of Electricity Supply Technologies Under German Conditions: A Comparative Evaluation," Paul Scherrer Institut, 1998.
15. U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), "Levelized Cost and Levelized Avoided Cost of New Generation Resources in the Annual Energy Outlook 2021."
16. World Nuclear Association, "Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries."
17. World Nuclear Association, "Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors."
18. World Nuclear Association, "Generation IV Nuclear Reactors."
19. Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) and International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), "Uranium 2020: Resources, Production and Demand."
20. Australian Government, Department of Industry, Science, Energy, and Resources, "Australian Energy Statistics."
21. Australian Government, Department of the Environment and Energy, "Australia's Emissions Projections 2020."