Mining Impact on Indigenous Women in Northern Saskatchewan: A Feminist Understanding of their Contributions, Empowerment, and Oppression

Written by Heather Poirier

Supervisor Dr. Kalowatie Deonandan

September 2021

University of Saskatchewan

Treaty 6 Territory, Homeland of the Metis. I pay my respects to the First Nations and Metis ancestors of this place and reaffirm our relationship to one another.

Table Of Contents

1. Introduction

2. Methodology

3. Theory- Indigenous Feminism

4. Uranium Mining Industry in Northern Saskatchewan

4.1. Grandfathered Mines???????????????????????????????????????????????

5. Impacts on Indigenous Women

5.1. Marginalization

5.2. Access to Employment

5.3. Wellness in Northern Saskatchewan

5.4. Contamination of Traditional Lands

5.5. Culture of Violence

5.6. Sexual violence

5.7. ?Colonial Institutions??????????????????????????????????????????????????

6. Women’s Agency

6.1. Kinship Ties- Collaborative partnerships

6.2. ?Indigenous Feminist Activism ??????????????????????????????????

6.3. ?Indigenous Women’s Support for the Mining Industry???

7.??? Recommendations & Present Conditions?????????????????????????????????????

7.1. Creating Opportunities Through Partnerships & Employment??

7.2. ?Gender in Impact Assessment????????????????????????????????????

7.3. ?Government and Industry Accountability???????????? ????????

7.4. ?Conclusion??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

8.??? Acronyms??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

9.??? Bibliography?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

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Acknowledgments

This paper was supported by the Mitacs Indra Research Award as well as the Mentorstep Internship in partnership between the University of Saskatchewan and the Saskatoon Tribal Council. I would like to especially thank my supervisor, Dr. Kalowatie Deonandan for offering support, advice, and assistance during the whole process. While amid an ongoing (too long) pandemic, remote access to various faculty, staff, and professionals greatly aided in the completion of this paper. I appreciate the faculty and staff at the University of Saskatchewan that supported this research: Dr. Kathy Walker, Dr. Priscilla Settee, Dr. Sandy Bonny, and Dr. Merle Massie. ?

Dedication

To my children, Elizabeth, Sofia, and Roman.

You are what gets me through my darkest moments, having you provides me with so much joy in life. I will always strive to be your greatest mentor, guide, and champion. May love and kindness always shine strongest.

Abstract

The present analysis focuses on the challenges that Canada’s mining sector poses for Indigenous women as it is on the territories of Indigenous peoples that a significant amount of resource development, such as uranium mining, is occurring.? This paper argues that while Indigenous women are disproportionately harmed by extractive development, they are also strongly engaged in social activism to bring about changes in how the industry operates.

“Aboriginal Peoples generally have not been consulted about development activities; usually they have not been guaranteed, nor have they obtained, specific economic benefits from such activities on their traditional lands; and they have had difficulty protecting their traditional use from the effects of development.”

– Royal Commission on Aboriginal People, Restructuring the Relationship (Volume 2), 1996

1.???? Introduction

The shocking discovery of two hundred fifteen small, delicate bodies in an unmarked residential school gravesite was what it took for Canadian society to hear the darkest truths, specifically the brutality of Indigenous experiences over the past one hundred years in residential schools across Canada. Further attention was drawn to the marginalization, poverty, and sufferings of Indigenous peoples, specifically Indigenous women, by the Idle No More Movement which emerged in 2013. Later, the plight of Indigenous women was again emphasized, this time in the Report on Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls (MMIWG, 2019) which drew the nation’s attention to unsolved murders of 824 Indigenous women across Canada (Pearce, 2013: 10). The Native Women’s Association of Canada believes there are at least 1500 unaccounted murders of Indigenous women through their own research and estimates this number to be likely much higher (Razack, 2016). The report underscored the violence that Indigenous women suffered not only due to the neglect of the country’s institutions, but also as a result of the kinds of development strategies which are undertaken, specifically that which emphasizes large scale mining development. The present analysis focuses on the challenges that Canada’s mining sector poses for Indigenous women as it is on the territories of Indigenous peoples that a significant amount of resource development, such as uranium mining, is occurring. This paper argues that while Indigenous women are disproportionately harmed by extractive development, they are also strongly engaged in social activism to realize changes within the industry. To argue this claim, the paper will be structured into seven sections: section 1 is the above introduction; section 2 is the methodology; section 3 lays out the theoretical framework, that of Indigenous feminism which will guide the analysis; section 4 is the background of mining in Saskatchewan; section 5 is the analysis of the impacts of mining practices on Indigenous women; section 6 is the engagement by Indigenous female activists in defense of their rights; and section 7 is recommendations for industry and governance practices to help guide the industry towards a more conciliatory future.

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2.???? Methodology

This paper uses mixed-methods approach. It relies on primary and secondary data sources, both qualitative and quantitative, with an emphasis on the former. In terms of primary qualitative data, it drew on discussions with Indigenous academics as well as NGO documentation and other reports. Secondary qualitative data included peer reviewed publications and non- peer reviewed published materials. The quantitative data were gathered primarily from governmental sources and dealt with mining-related statistics from the communities targeted in the research as well as those from other parts of Canada where they were deemed applicable to the case study. Due to the paucity of data in specific areas of Saskatchewan as well as the more marginalized nature of the Indigenous communities in Northern Saskatchewan, I draw on research done across Canada while also outlining the necessity for further research in particular areas. Efforts were made to reach out to members in Northern communities, however due to time constraints and the pandemic, I refocused the data collection by interviewing female Indigenous academic leaders with knowledge of the research topic.

On a personal note, while I am a female of Metis Mi’kmaq descent and have been impacted by colonial policies, I have been detached enough from my Indigenous roots through colonization. This research holds personal significance for me as it is part of a process of discovery of my Indigenous roots and to become more learned on the issue of Indigenous feminism.

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3.???? Theory- Indigenous Feminism

Indigenous feminism as we know it is to be in relationship - in relationship to ourselves, other humans, and non-human entities including spirits, and the environment of four-leggeds, winged ones, those that swim, those that crawl, plants, rocks, the wind, water, and fire. Perhaps it is because of this interconnectedness that many Indigenous women refute the term feminist. To give ourselves a word, a name, creates difference where unity is necessary for survival (Nickel, 2020: 227).

The framework guiding this analysis is that of Indigenous feminism. This theory is particularly applicable as it forces the recognition of the system of colonization in Canada as a gendered process. Through systemic forms of oppression, cultural practices have magnified women’s social, political, and cultural disempowerment in Canada (Suzack, 2015. Pg. 262). Treaty negotiations, rights, and the governance structures on reserves, which define the key holders of power and privilege in Indigenous communities, have all ignored the value of women’s voices in policies and processes (Suzack, 2015: 263). Indigenous women experience higher rates of gender-based violence, lower incomes, greater levels of discrimination, and are less likely to have political representation (Nickel, 2019). The emergence of Indigenous feminism as a contemporary theory reflects, in part, the hesitance to join in with previous waves of feminism lacking in the intersectionality necessary for Indigenous women’s reality, but also the silencing of their experience in Canada as a population. The concern for many women in voicing their experiences of oppression within their community, was that struggles for their rights independently from the community, that is their struggles as feminists, would detract from the larger struggle for Indigenous autonomy and self-governance. Their fear was that it would take too much energy away from those initiatives (Suzack, 2010: 2). Many Indigenous women are now fighting against this homogenization of Indigenous experiences as it does not recognize the disproportionately negative impacts of policy on women. The patriarchal and colonial constraints under which Indigenous women operate is glaringly evident in Canadian public policy which ??defines the “Indian”.

As Cheryl Suzack describes Indigenous feminism as the pursuit of ‘gender justice’; it is women highlighting how they have been marginalized not only as women but because of their Indigeneity as well as other aspects of their identity (Suzack, 2015: 261). The sources of their oppression are layered aspects and differ from that of white feminists. As such, the concept of intersectionality is especially helpful in terms of developing our understanding of the “layered oppression” of Indigenous women.

Intersectionality can be construed as encompassing multiple aspects of conscious constructs in society that work to create class and hierarchy. A number of these intersecting characteristics form the foundation from which people view others and the perspectives from which they are seen. They include: 1) systems of oppression that are intertwined with one another such as racism, sexism, and class exploitation; 2) social inequalities that form within the systems of oppression; 3) perceptions of people based on their placement of power through the historical and social context in which they are situated; 4) divergent ideas based on a person’s social standing that reflect their perceptions of social events (Collins, p. 167).

Through the interconnected relationships with other people in society, as well as the relationship with nature, the environment and biological systems, Indigenous feminism represents the ties that bind all. These kinship ties represent the lens or tool that many Indigenous women use in enacting their forms of feminist activism within the Canadian patriarchal and colonial system. To decolonize societal processes, according to Indigenous feminism[DK1]?, we need to first decolonize the mind and the communities. According to Suzack’s research of Indigenous women’s activism in Canada, Indigenous women pursue three main forms of activism which all heavily focus on the theme of decolonization (Suzack 2015). Their strategies incorporate: coalition politics through the pursuit of holistic forms of self-empowerment as a group, reconstruction of the Indigenous legal frameworks for representation of Indigenous knowledge and traditions, and a restoration of Indigenous women’s value that have been eroded by colonization and patriarchal practices (Suzack, 2015: 261[DK2]?).

Gendered inequalities are reinforced in Canadian society and specifically in Indigenous communities as the elite maintain power and redefine what is traditional while suppressing any critical analysis of those dynamics. The importance for feminism to be defined within the colonial patriarchal context which has entrenched itself is part of the analysis for industry development in Northern Canada. Recognizing the impacts of misogynistic practices, concentration of violence against women, and ongoing colonial structures in the community through an Indigenous feminist lens calls for accountability on the disproportionately negative impacts women experience in the development of mines.

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4.???? Mining Industry in Northern Saskatchewan

Northern Saskatchewan is a land replete with mineral resources that have slowly been tapped into as commodity prices encourage exploration from diverse markets. According to the Mining Association of Canada, the contribution of the extractive industry in Canada averages between 2.7% to 4.5% of real GDP (MAC, 2021). Extraction of minerals alone account for $34.1 billion in 2019 (MAC, 2021). Extractive industry is Canada’s fourth largest sector (Ibid) and will continue to fuel a strong piece of the Canadian economy as the demand for these minerals increases. In Saskatchewan, mining plays an increasingly significant role in the economy. The value of mining reaching $2.5 billion in this province in 2015, with uranium being the second largest contributor to that value of production (Energy and Mines Ministers’ Conference, 2015: 15). The industry also plays an important part in funding public institutions through tax revenues and royalties. In 2019 combined royalties and taxes revenue to the country from the sector reached $4.7 billion (MAC, 2021: 16)

The sector is expected to increase as a projected growth in demand for some ‘green’ minerals post-pandemic is expected, and as governments push for more renewable energy. Minerals such as lithium, copper, uranium, nickel, and cobalt used in new technologies, have previously been mined in small quantities, but as innovative technologies emerge that harness their potential for renewable energy production, they will become an increasingly more important income generator in the extractive sector. Currently, uranium is primarily used in nuclear energy production (99%) (Natural Resources Canada, 2015: 95). Employment in the extractive resource industry is one of the largest in Canada for heavy industry labour markets. The sector is also the largest employer of Indigenous peoples, specifically in Northern parts of Canada (Mining Association of Canada, 2021). Nunavut, Northwest Territories, Yukon, and the Northern areas of most provinces in Canada, all have high Indigenous populations. As well they have high concentrations of mining operations. In Northern Saskatchewan, the main mineral of extraction in recent years is uranium due to the high quality and large quantities that is available there.

Mine development is a long, expensive process, with many steps prior to the initiation of excavation for site development. There is consultation with provincial government authority, prospecting of land, raising of capital, claiming a permit for exploration in the area, then the physical extraction through exploration services. In recent decades, the consultation with band councils and tribal affiliations in the areas of development have been a part of this process. Band councils work with the industry representatives as well as government officials to assess the impacts on land, the community, and potential benefits for the development. This has not always been the case and acknowledging the rights to territory are generally based on previous land claims brought to court by First Nations due to the historical mistreatment of their members and territory by the extraction industry alongside provincial government. In one area close to Black Lake First Nation in Northern Saskatchewan, the company ALX resources is spending $6 million over 4 years in exploration alone at a site called Gibbons Creek (ALX Resources Corp, 2021). Another company, Forum Energy Metals Corp, owned by Orano mining, is spending another $6 million before 2023 for exploration in the area. This site called the Fir Island project is only 5 km from the community (Forum Energy, 2021). These are only prospective mines and yet the exploration spending is $12 million from the two companies. Other mine sites in the area are the well-established Nisto Mine, Fond du Lac, and Middle Lake systems. The exploration phase of mine prospecting is enacted without any direct benefits to the area's population unless they are employed by the exploration company or offer services through a benefit agreement.

In previous decades, mining sites would have towns established around them to facilitate the scheduling, family life, and participation for a larger sector around the mining activities. However, this was deemed as cost-prohibitive, resulting with the fly-in-fly-out economy established in the 1980s. Migrant workforce man camps were then constructed in lieu of settlements with transient workers that would work on site for two to four weeks then fly back to their homes for another week or two. This creation of a transient workforce over a settled family life around mining operations impacted Indigenous communities through economic opportunities that opened to them for the servicing of these sites but also to the detriment of family dynamics for those that participate in the work schedule (Jensen, 2020. Pg. 78).

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Graphic from the Government of Saskatchewan website. https://www.saskatchewan.ca/government/news-and-media/2019/may/27/mining-week

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4.1? Uranium Mines- Who bears the burden?

As of 2021 there are 37 Cold War era uranium mines that remain abandoned and in the process of being remediated (Johnston, Suzanne. 2019). The result of the massive quantities of waste product from these mines has increased the levels of hardships that local populations have experienced with their loss of territory along with the increased pollution in the area. Many of the traditional activities of the First Nations have been grossly stunted through the irresponsible history of mining in Northern Canada and reinforce the power dynamics that subjugate Indigenous people to the will of those with money and power. Through remediation efforts, the Saskatchewan government is funding the cleanup of these dozens of abandoned mine sites to the tune of hundreds of millions in public dollars. To be proactive with mine site development that engage all aspects of the impact in an area is crucial to move forward with the least possible negative impacts.

The impact of mines in Northern Saskatchewan goes far beyond their immediate impact on local populations through the presence of mine workers, exploration, and pollution; they leave centuries worth of millions of tons of toxic tailings behind once the mines are exhausted. Who bears the burden of widespread radio-active contamination in Northern communities? We know that once the mining company has shut down the mine, they are no longer impacted by the environmental damage inflicted by their activities. In Saskatchewan, publicly generated money goes to remediation efforts to clean up the mess of extractive industry and the regulation of such activities remains scarce. The estimated costs of one mine, Gunnar mine on the shores of Lake Athabasca, alone have gone from an estimated $24.5 million in 2006 to over $280 million in 2018. The ballooning of costs represent contamination at the site and surrounding areas the Saskatchewan Research Council had not considered or expected (Maciag, Samantha. 2018). This example of one mining site that has not been running since 1964 represents the damage that was inflicted and potentially will always impact the local Dene people in their traditional territories. It also impacts the environment, wildlife, and water sources of Northern territories which have fueled the sustainability for many communities prior to government and industry interventions. The benefits of mine development for the Denesuline people have been very few historically. The development of mine sites includes decades of environmental damage, an economic boom and bust cycle, communities in crisis- increased abuse, drug addictions, dependency, and loss of territory for the local First Nations.

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5. Impact on Indigenous Women, Reinforcing Marginalization:?

Patriarchy encourages men to seek security, status, and other rewards through control; to fear other men’s ability to control and harm them; and to identify being in control as both their best defense against loss and humiliation and the surest route to what they need and desire. In this sense, although we usually think of patriarchy in terms of what happens between men and women, it is more about what goes on among men.” (Johnson, 1997: 26) (Taken from Green, & Verna St. Denis chapter, 2017: 55)

?Northern Saskatchewan is a beautiful, untamed, natural place in Canada with large tracts of boreal forest and large numbers of diverse wildlife. The Denesuline people have since time immemorial chased the caribou herds and lived off the land through sustainable traditional activities. They have been the keepers of natural resources in their territory as they are intricately tied to the health of their environment. In many ways, their identity is tied to the land as the First Peoples in North America. Women especially have a prominent place in Indigenous culture with their traditional knowledge keeping and practices. Altering this relationship between the Indigenous peoples and their lands is the massive incursion of extractive operations in the region. Indigenous women, in particular, have been disproportionately harmed by the presence of large-scale mining in the region.

Through the development of extractive mining projects, the Northern bands along with the rest of First Nations in Canada have been gravely impacted by the history of disrespect and harm they have experienced. This history unfortunately continues in present day through government and industry actions. In this section of impacts on Indigenous women in Northern Saskatchewan, I will describe their intensified marginalization through 1) misogynistic practices, 2) employment access/education attainment, 3) reinforcement of colonial institutions, 4) Health & Wellness impacts through pollution, loss of culture, traditional activities, and 5) deepening of crises through the culture of violence with sexual violence being a major impact of industry in the area.

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5.1 Mining Culture – Practice of Misogyny

The main form of interactions that mining companies have with First Nations has been using Impact and Benefit Agreements (IBA). This remains the main leverage for First Nations to enforce communication between companies, political leadership, and community with the rights of duty to consult. These rights originate in the Canadian Constitution Act of 1982 where Aboriginal rights and Duty to Consult were enshrined, along with a clause that allowed for industry to skirt these rights (Chartrand, 4). There were no gendered considerations in the implementation of duty to consult nor does it manage who, what, and how it would be enacted.

Beginning in the early 2000’s companies need to show they tried to consult ‘meaningfully’ and negotiate with Indigenous communities before they gain government approval for permits to develop the mine sites (Gov. of Saskatchewan, 2010: 3-4). Opportunities that come with the economic benefits of resource extraction are increasingly important and many First Nations are taking the initiative to set up corporations, partnerships, and organizations to share in the benefits on a more equal footing (Cameco, 2021). Women in the communities also have opportunities to benefit from these economic boons if they are supported, stigmas decreased, and the culture of mining from that of a male-dominated sector gains greater equity. I will expand further on these issues under employment.

Indigenous feminism deals with not only the imposition of patriarchy by mainstream society but also must contend with the defining of traditional roles within their societies that are now governed by elite male leadership. (Green, 2017: 13). These structures of misogynistic power dynamics are prevalent within industry and Indigenous governance practices, making it even more difficult for female leadership to gain a voice unless it is one that has been written in as traditionally acceptable. Traditional accepted roles for women such as caretakers, mothers, and guardians of natural resources are those that typically gain support from male colleagues and industry. How then can Indigenous women speak out against the misogyny being reinforced in their own communities by the preference of heteronormative colonialist practices that are enacted to further their marginalization? Gina Starblanket describes the necessity of a resurgence in gendered conversations within Indigenous infrastructure that engage with a critical analysis of the distinct forms of oppression felt by those that are not favoured by patriarchal norms (Green, 2017: 23). Indigenous women are engaging in critical activism and scholarship that is now working towards disrupting these hierarchies within Native Nations that have internalized the male dominance and reinforcement of unequal gendered roles as traditionally Indigenous. Prior to female engagement with this critical activism framework, Aboriginal issues were lumped together as both sexes being affected equally in political discourse (Green, 2017: 23).

Further research is needed that offers a transparent look at the misogyny within the mining industry (Botha, 2016: 2). Studies show that there still is a strong prevalence of harassment against women in male dominated sectors, with racialized women being even further subjugated to these behaviours. As Botha describes a good indicator of the predominance of sexual harassment in a workplace is the male to female ratio. When there are greater numbers of women in a workplace, there are less likely to be issues of harassment, sexual abuse, or a culture of misogyny. Being a male-dominated environment in Canada, the industry must introduce strong reporting practices that allow for women to have protections in their workplace without fear of reprisal. Increasing the number of women within higher paying mining jobs will only come once their marginalization and retention rates occur from a change of the patriarchal culture in the industry. Indigenous women within the mining industry are working towards that shift in culture, through partnerships with other women’s organizations as well as advocates for responsible mining practices. First Nations Women Advocating Responsible Mining is one of those initiatives, which collaborates with other organizations to advocate, share data, and partner with industry for a healthier future (BC studies editor, 2017). Women in Mining is also working towards increasing diversity through female engagement, collaborating with the mining sector to report findings on how to effectively retain skilled female employees (Women in Mining, 2010).

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5.2 Access to Employment Opportunities

Misogyny is prevalent in not only the industry normative hiring practices of white males but also pervades in the preferential hiring of Indigenous males in Northern communities. These gendered hirings can be supported by the communities through the reinforcement of normative patriarchal roles that the nation has adopted through colonization. Access to childcare was listed as one of the major challenges self-reported by women in pursuing or maintaining jobs in the industry (Manning et al., 2018: 7). Childcare is especially crucial to women’s access to employment as there is a higher-than-average amount of single parent families (42.7% of lone-parent families are Indigenous women) in Northern communities and would greatly impact income potential for those families (Status of Women, 2016: 2).

A large portion of the employment in Northern communities is in the mining industry, with it having up to 35% of its workforce made up of Indigenous people (Mining Facts, 2015). While this is admirable considering the lower percentages of Indigenous workers in other industries, the higher paying jobs tend to go to people who are from outside the territory and are majority white male (Gov. of Canada, 2019). Women make up 14% of mining employment across Canada, up from 10% in 2001 (Gov. of Canada, 2019). Economic benefits from the mining industry include royalties, wages, secondary benefits from support to community or band-owned businesses, and trust funds established through the IBA’s (Hipwell et al., 2002: 10). ?

The Native Women’s Association of Canada has created a project called ‘The Barriers and Opportunities in the Resource Development Sector (BORDS)’, which is attempting to fill the labour shortages with Indigenous women in non-traditional roles (Native Women’s Association, 2015). They recognize the economic opportunity that the industry affords to their area and the possibilities for their collaboration with the mining companies but seek to have greater autonomy and voice within the industry as well as access to better opportunities than what has traditionally been given to women. In a study that they performed, NWAC found that out of 85 companies only 20 (25%) responded favourably to Aboriginal engagement past government mandated requirements (NWAC, 2015: 10). This lack of voluntary engagement past regulated legal obligations underlines the need to enforce regulations on industry that will bring greater equity.?

Women continue to be hired for more temporary, low-paying, and traditional female labour such as housekeeping, cooking, and administration duties. In 2010, a study done by Women in Mining showed that within the low rates of female employment in the mining industry, 40% of those women were in administrative positions (which averaged alongside other industries for that category) (WIM, 2010: 29). In another study done at the Meadowbank Gold Mine in Nunavut, the participants reported that women were more likely to hold temporary or casual job contracts, making up 35% of the workforce (Manning et al., 2018: 6). This has a greater impact on women with job security, especially if they become pregnant and make it unable to attain maternity leave, or a securing of the position post-partum. The strain this puts on women’s capacity to provide and participate in society is palpable, with impacts to their mental health and the health of the community.

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Health & Wellness

5.3 Health Impacts for Community

Many Indigenous people in Canada have dealt with the trauma of their historical and contemporary mistreatment by using drugs and alcohol as coping mechanisms. This trend has served to further alienate and marginalize the Indigenous populations. Instead of it being a solely economic problem through lack of access to job markets, the many impacts that society and the extractive industry have on women can deepen mental health and identity crises in Indigenous communities. Assessing research done by health and social work services in Northern Saskatchewan shows that some of the most immediate issues are that of mental health, addictions, cancer, and diabetes (Northern Saskatchewan Health Indicators, 2011: 40). While the incidence of low income in Northern Saskatchewan, coupled with higher costs of living impact many in the region, a valid point from the health regions assessment is the lack of autonomy or control over one’s destiny has an equally great impact on their wellbeing. Therefore, social determinants of health should be considered equally as important as the economic impact that lack of development or opportunities has on a person. An environmental scan done by the Athabasca Health Region in 2019 recognized the high levels of addictions reflecting lower socio-economic status and education rates compared to the rest of the province (Athabasca Health Authority, 2019: 23). The Truth and Reconciliation Committee found that unresolved issues of intergenerational trauma, violence, and loss of identity continued to pervade Indigenous populations and were not just a historical problem but were in current relational patterns (TRC, 2019). In an assessment of the impacts on interpersonal relations, research found that the two weeks in, two weeks out schedule was hard on family dynamics (Czyzewski and Tester, 2014. pg. 215). Through their work in Nunavut, Czyzewski reveals that the “social, cultural, and economic realities create intersecting identities for Inuit that highlight various interlocking and oppressive processes: racism, sexism, colonialism, and classism.” With greater pressure placed on women to enact the lion share of household responsibilities as well as childcare while their men are away from home working for weeks and months at a time, this increases the mental and physical burden specifically on women to maintain various roles in their community (Mining watch, 2001: 15). With juggling both employment and their various other caregiving responsibilities women also are less able to devote time to their culture, community, and wellbeing.

A case study was done in Northwest Territories of the Dene Nation where the leadership took the initiative to create a Community Development Program in which they invested in issues applicable to their communities such as drug & alcohol abuse, housing, economic development, and decision making. They also focused on youth initiatives, health, and education for their nation. While this had a major positive impact on their area and people, due to lack of funding it only survived two years from inception. Efforts such as this to be proactive to address the barriers to greater societal functioning need to be supported by both the government and industry as one of the IBA components (Mining Watch, 2001: 16). Barriers such as lack of childcare, greater mental health support, and awareness of the impacts of intergenerational trauma on the communities need to be removed for women to realize gains in equitable socio-economic positions. Empowerment through family planning services or social supports that increase higher education attainment has seen women take their power back around the world and could be an avenue in Northern communities. These two factors could enable women to see a future outside of dependency on government subsidies and alleviate the high levels of single parent poverty that see higher than average rates in Indigenous communities. The access and support for these services could benefit from further research or policy creation in Northern Saskatchewan.

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5.4 Pollution & Contamination of Traditional Lands

Not only the physical and mental health of Indigenous people in Northern Saskatchewan are being threatened. Their lifestyles are threatened as well through contamination and pollution of their drinking water, decrease in wildlife, and increased levels of toxic substances in areas that have been mined or explored. While there are ongoing remediation efforts for grandfathered mines in the province, during the exploration phase there have been local witness to discarded rocks and minerals with potentially high levels of contaminants left behind after these processes (Climate Change Saskatoon, Candyce Paul interview). Around the world we are seeing the damage caused by anthropogenic actions and mismanagement of our global resources. The impact of climate change, pollution, and loss of natural resources is increasing at an alarming rate. Most often it is marginalized communities and developing nations that withstand the worst of the most devastating of these changes to our world. Loss of traditional territory coupled with the increased pollution and environmental degradation in Northern Indigenous territories disproportionately impacts women in those areas. The long-term impacts of the industry continue to be far-reaching, with water, wildlife, and soil damage persisting for decades or even centuries after the industry have vacated the area (Mining Watch, 2001: 3).

Throughout the phases of mining exploration, development, and remediation of the mine site there are potential ecological damages done on the environment. With such a gross concentration of exploration activities in dense wildlife and fragile ecosystems, the environmental impacts of mining have gotten most of the attention from environmental rights advocates (Mining Watch Canada, 2001: 1-2). An increase in air traffic through the fly-in system disturbs local habitats through air quality, traffic, as well as noise levels for those near airfields or in their flight paths. The boom of industry and gain in surplus wealth for many developed nations needs to be held accountable for the damages incurred in this pursuit of material wealth at the cost of environmental and human rights. Implementing policy that not only safeguards the environment and natural resources for future generations but also the most vulnerable populations of present.

A concern when a major part of investment comes from industry benefits to the region are the ties that this implies with what is given attention and what is swept under the rug. Recent monitoring of cancer occurrences has shown that they are increasing in the region (which could be correlated with increased access to health services alongside traditional practices of tobacco use) (Canadian Partnership Against Cancer, 2013: 5), it could also be directly connected to the toxic environment that is the result of uranium mining development. In an interview with the David Suzuki Foundation (2018), Candyce Paul highlights studies done on wildlife and fish around Lake Athabasca, that showed elevated levels of harmful substances. These are traditional foods to supplement the lifestyle of Indigenous people in the area. Without access to greater tracts of land or larger numbers of wildlife, communities are left to rely on access to markets in the South with often awfully expensive price tags attached that are unsustainable and increase their levels of hardship. To be left without modes for subsistence in traditional lifestyle, their dependency on industry projects, southern job markets, and social services increases. This reliance is fundamentally contrary to the culture and traditional ways, which in turn causes mental harm and increases the use of coping mechanisms such as drugs, alcohol, or abuse of others.

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5.5 Culture of Violence

Indigenous women experience higher numbers of severe forms of violence, with 54% of Aboriginal women reporting grievous acts of family violence over 34% of non-Aboriginal women (NWAC, 2010. Pg. 2) To maintain account of the differentiation in these types of acts of violence against marginalized persons helps to indicate where there needs to be policy and social change around those issues. Without recognizing the problems that exacerbate and continue systemic problems in northern communities, solutions cannot be reached, and Indigenous women will continue to be further marginalized. Deborah Stienstra with FemNorthNet, argues is that the resource development sector can bring crisis to a community that was sitting on the edge of that precipice.

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“For Northern communities experiencing resource extraction, the emergence or deepening of a crisis often indicates a lack of resources, infrastructure and/or capacity to deal with the changes and strains that come with the development of a new project. Intersectionality is a key tool for understanding how crises on the local level are shaped by wider historical, social, political and economic forces. While some Northern communities might newly experience a crisis, others might be considered a ‘community in crisis,’ where ‘crises may be chronic and cumulative, and a crisis situation may become a ‘normal way of life’” (Stienstra, 2019: 217).

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The perpetuation of a culture of violence in Indigenous communities is a product of colonial rule, oppression, and disruption in their lives sanctioned by government and industry leadership. Through the historical harm done to communities through the Indian Act and other harmful policies affecting Indigenous populations over the past 100 years, a normative environment of violence has resulted. Survivors of the residential school system reflect on the ‘rampant abuse, neglect, and bullying’ that occurred but also their ‘small acts of resistance’ through silent action they partook in (Suzack, 2015. Pg. 269). These acts of resistance can be seen across Canada with Indigenous women voicing their concerns about industry activities in their areas and the negative impacts this development disproportionately has on them.

The culture of violence in these communities through the actions of the government towards Indigenous people were only amplified through the actions of the mining industry for disregarding their land rights or polluting the areas around the communities with toxic tailings and runoff. In the Dene community of Deline, in the Northwest Territories, mining had occurred from 1934 to 1982 for various minerals, including radium, uranium, and silver. These mines used Indigenous laborer's (mostly men) from the community to transport the radioactive uranium ore in sacks, with no protection and no warnings of the effects that would have on them. Eventually the community was dubbed the “Village of Widows” because of the loss of male residents through their death by cancers and other effects of the toxicity of their labour (Suzack, 2015. Pg. 269).

The Native Women’s Association of Canada is one non-profit organization that serves to highlight the gaps in research and demand the experiences of First Nations women in Canada be heard. Their findings show that Indigenous women are three to four times as likely as non-Aboriginal women to experience violence from their spouse, family member, or stranger (NWAC, 2010). Consider this is on top of the high number of spousal/familial perpetrated violence experienced by women in general in Canadian society. One of the organizations findings that deserves further thought is that community-based research shows higher levels of violence than that of government collected data. This indicates the comfort in reporting domestic violence to familiar or culturally matched researchers is preferred over that of federal institutions. Government data then needs to factor in the gap in reporting gendered violence, especially in remote communities without supports for women affected, when making policy. Women in general report less to federal or legal authorities than those of their peers, this is exacerbated for marginalized women through their negative experiences with colonial institutions and systems. Normalizing the marginalization of Indigenous women creates environments in which they are living in a culture of violence within their community and outside of it, becoming their normative experience throughout life.

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5.6 Sexual Violence on Indigenous Women

The Native Women’s Association has long linked extractive industry to the occasions of missing or murdered women and girls in Northern communities. This is not unique however to Saskatchewan mining industry. These events are part of the societal issue of racializing Indigenous women and placing them lower in importance than other women due to the stigmas attached to their race, culture, or heritage. The ignorance of most Canadians as to their lived experiences and the reality of how intergenerational trauma has impacted their communities is widespread. The NWA started an initiative called Sisters in Spirit that sought to highlight the trauma and occurrences of missing or murdered Indigenous women from 2005-2010. (Pearce, 2013: 10). As Maryanne Pearce discovers in her research of 824 missing or murdered Indigenous women over the past 30 years, many of the women were sex workers (Pearce, 2013: 10). Higher rates of violence are prevalent in the sex work industry for not just racialized women, but women deemed as ‘high risk,’ with lower rates of incarceration for the perpetrator when it is between a racialized woman and a white male. As she explains in her dissertation, there are large gaps in current research that examine the intersectionality of violence against women or the instances in which they occur against Indigenous women.

The linkage between sex work and migrant labour is widespread across all industries and countries. Mining and resource extraction heavily relies on a predominantly male migrant workforce and man camps are well-known to be a source of income for sex workers (Pearce, 2013). However, the reliance on this form of work puts these women at grave risk, many receiving physical or sexual abuse because of the misogynistic attitudes of the men in these work forces. The need for the mining industry to hold their workforce accountable for the individual impacts that they cause in the area is crucial. Increasing reporting measures with protections through anonymity would be a sound way to allow women to report their abuses without fear of stigma or backlash from the workers or their community.

After the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) concluded, they included recommendations for how to engage with First Nations communities in future development projects. An article written by Chief Isodore Day in Ontario called for the mining industry to consider the principles recommended by the TRC when engaging with First nations communities, building bridges, and progressing towards a future that is sustainable for all. (Day, I. 2016). Within the TRC report, there were numerous calls for addressing the inequalities that persist between men and women in the communities as well as the way that Indigenous women’s bodies are often racialized through sexual violence. The impact of the mining industry has played a large part in this increase in violence that disproportionately affect women in Northern communities. What led to the Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women movement was such calls to address these impacts on women, while also demanding that they be treated as valued individuals in Canadian institutions and legal systems. (Razack, I).

Razack notes that Indigenous women and girls are often discounted for the value of their body and in many cases the justice system and society accept the use and misuse of Indigenous women’s bodies as acceptable. Trafficking of Indigenous women and the use of their bodies for sexual exploitation until they become assimilated has been occurring since the beginning of colonization, as the creation and subsequent loss of the Metis peoples for the past hundred years can attest to. There are many instances where a white man rapes, murders, or maims an Indigenous woman and is acquitted or receives minor charges after the offense. (Razack, Sherene. 2016). This sexual racialization of Indigenous women leads many to not voice the experiences of their abuse or even attempt to bring justice to the perpetrator because of the systemic inequalities that exist within Canadian institutions and industries.

In many cases, information from statistical analysis is unavailable or too broad a scope, so direct qualitative data must be taken from communities to delve into the intersectionality of for violence against women. The Sisters in Spirit research, education, and examination of the issue of Indigenous women experiencing higher levels of violence was such an initiative to glean more accurate information. (NWAC, 2010) Indigenous women in Canada have led the way forward through the telling of their own experiences, acting to highlight the damage done to their bodies, communities, and their environment. Through the enactment of holistic Indigenous feminism, they serve not only to raise empathy and awareness to their unique situation but also to work to protect the environment and their community through their embodiment of Indigenous knowledge.

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5.7 Colonial Institutions

Indigenous people in Canada make up 5% of the total population yet have most of the resource development occurring in their territories (Doyle, 2019: 135). As Cathal Doyle argues, systemic violations of Indigenous peoples by the actions of their government and industry are well documented as being marginalized and disproportionately negatively affected by development (2019: 135). These impacts which can be a physical loss of land that they rely upon for cultural survival, health impacts through industry practices, influx of violence, sexual abuse, and increase in addictions within communities. What also bears consequence is the reinforcement of marginalization through mechanisms of colonization in our economic system and industry. Indigenous women’s lives have been altered throughout the decades and now exist within a culture of violence. Their lives often are considered too complicated to protect; implementing equitable policy that protects women can be seen as a deterrent to business, health services too difficult to put into effect, accountability for industry to take responsibility for increasing levels of violence, addiction, and abuse too negative to own.

Canadian society has not been safe for Indigenous women. Through the devaluation of their words, bodies, culture, and spirituality, they have suffered through the misogynistic practices within the institutions, society, and in their homes as mining development expands into their territory. Never should it be acceptable for one person to violate another’s body or hold control over it, and yet it is commonplace in patriarchal societies. While this is largely a societal issue, industry needs to step up as leaders in representing fair practices, with politicians and government guiding policy based on the lived experiences and statistical data to create better conditions within the industry. There have been recommendations made to hold industry accountable by the TRC, with 5 goals aimed at the extractive sector (MacMaster & Seck, 2020: 32). These goals included supporting Indigenous women and children through protections from the well-known occurrences of sexual violence, gender bias, and harm done to them during all stages of resource development work.

In many communities, women are not only up against the influx of outside influence and abuse but also that within their own society. With the concentration of power in a male dominated system and negotiations with the industry primarily lying in these men's hands, there is a reinforcement of privileges men receive in the outcomes of the company-community agreements. (O’Faircheallaigh, 2013. pg. 1795). Times are changing however, and many communities are increasingly evolving to include women as chiefs and council members. The community of Black Lake has a new female Chief that will head negotiations with the exploration projects around the community. Indigenous women are not passive actors, they are stepping up, using their voice, and enacting their own forms of empowerment in ways unique to their cultures and in truth to themselves.

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6.???? Women’s Agency

For Indigenous women, the necessity to heal intergenerational trauma while bearing the continued oppression from not only patriarchal systems but also the continuation of colonial institutions forms their perspective of feminist theory. Socio-economic standing that is unique to parts of society that have been marginalized requires more than reactive policy changes. Feminist-based organizations such as Native Women’s Association of Canada rely on their foundations of trauma informed, intersectional analysis to create policy development suggestions and support for Indigenous women’s activism (NWAC, 2020: 10). This organization, which has ties across Canada works to indicate the disproportionate amount of violence enacted on Indigenous women, either through industry impacts, government institutions, or societal marginalization. They have worked to highlight the increases in sexual violence enacted on women with the establishment of the extractive industries man-camps in Northern areas. A 2011 study by Manon Lamontagne includes historical factors of trauma as the key roots for individual or collective experiences of abuse in communities, however, what was missing were the impacts of institutional reinforcement that deepens the levels of crisis in communities to negate the efforts for healing from these roots (Lamontagne, 2011: 8). Without recognition of how colonial impacts through power relations, resource monopoly, lack of autonomy and further marginalization of women by the economic system of Canada as noted throughout this article, it will make reconciliation or equity difficult to attain. Partnerships must be forged, and bridges built between the historically oppressed through colonization and the settler nation.

Indigenous women enact their feminist movements distinct from traditional ‘white’ feminism. Much of this reflects the intersectionality of their status in Canadian society. While their voices have been ignored and their bodies have been disregarded through the continuation of imposed patriarchal, racial, and sexual practices by Canadian society, Indigenous women have fought back in ways that are aligned with their cultural practices and in keeping with the beneficial movement for all in their communities. The inclusion of not only their demands for reparations of injustices but also that of their entire population and surrounding environment reflects the strength of Indigenous women. The term ‘silent action’ has been used to look at Indigenous women’s assumed consent to their erasure through the imposition of colonial systems and patriarchal norms (Suzack, 2015: 263). It challenges the replacement of women’s agency with one of victimhood or as a community of women that functions in the background behind men. ?Indigenous women have in many cases been seen as passive participants in their communities, ignored through treaty negotiations, economic development, and political representation for much of the history of colonial rule. When women have stepped up in their communities to speak out against the colonization of their own men through patriarchy or unequal systems of power, they are ostracized or deemed as ‘problem’ women (Green, 2017: 35). This experience is not unlike that of women around the world nor male counterparts that challenge the status quo. Society engages in a mass hushing of descension or questioning of current regimes, knowledge, or economic systems. Indigenous knowledge, attachment to the land, and traditional practices through systems of reparatory justice are often the tools to decolonization that contribute to Indigenous feminist theory. ?

Kinship ties are also a technique for expanding the impact of activism and gathering support for the issues women bring to light. The rights for self-determination are also a part of their feminism. By advancing their inherent rights in Canada for all Indigenous people, women will take back their power in their communities by supporting efforts to advance their collective empowerment and repair the culture of violence that has become a part of their daily life. Indigenous women’s activism is manifested across Canada through their partnerships, collaborative efforts, and their focused protests which work towards a better future for all through environmental preservation, infrastructure, government actions that undermine their sovereignty and guardianship of land, as well as to raise the issues that directly affect them such as the Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls. ?

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6.1 Kinship & Collaboration

In Sarah Nickel’s anthology of Indigenous Feminisms, In Good Relation: History, Gender, and Kinship in Indigenous Feminisms, she collects the self-expression of Indigenous feminists from across Canada, the United States and in some parts of Europe. (Gamache, 2019. Pg. 102). The connections between self-determination through creative expression and autonomy in defining your own nature is one in which Indigenous culture is embedded. Redefining and claiming these forms of knowledge, kinship ties, and connections form much of Indigenous feminism through a decolonizing of our own perceptions and how we interact as a society.

The association between de-colonization and self-governance in Indigenous communities is at the forefront of Indigenous feminist action. Through losing their traditional roles in the imposition of colonial patriarchy, Indigenous women work to redefine their place in society and what it means to be equal members of a community. The inclusion of two spirit, disabled, and those vulnerable in their community has been a part of the holistic practices of most North American nations. Through collaborative efforts, Indigenous women are seeking partnerships that allow for an inclusive and empowering relationship to be built between women of diverse backgrounds.

Organizations such as FemNorthNet, which focuses their research on Canadian Northern women’s socio-economic status and participation in mining (particularly in 3 locations in Manitoba & Newfoundland impacted by mining industry) is in collaboration with grassroots organizations to increase the amount of data available on a community level (Levac et al, 2018). They also are mindful of doing their research in a culturally sensitive manner through community action engagement which encompasses the leads of the project originating from the community. Engagement directly with Indigenous women in consultation at the beginning of mine development serves to include different knowledges and viewpoints than that of mainstream society. Canadian society tends to treat land and resources as such to be exploited as originated in European thinking of land management as a source of wealth and abundance (Manning et al. 2018: 3). There has been a push towards more Indigenous direction during the planning phase with the mining industry, reflected in changes to mandated legal requirements in recent decades (Hipwell et al, 2002).

There must be a seat at the table designated for Indigenous women’s knowledge and input into negotiations with the development that has disproportionately impacted them negatively. What also must be considered in the negotiations is their right to veto a project in completion or to alter the development of a mine site that is sensitive to their needs and traditional purposes for the land. Without this power to say no, the negotiations begin on an unequal footing, with the impact assessments contributing only to the rhetoric of the project. As both social license and the impact benefit agreements were constructed by the industry to gain social acceptance for the industries movements, regulations on the industry by governing bodies need to be given teeth to legitimize this process. The industry contributed up to five percent of the Canadian GDP in 2019 alone, so our society does heavily rely on it, however, that does not mean that the populations in the area should withstand the worst of the impacts from these extraction activities. (Mining Association of Canada, 2021).

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6.2 Indigenous Feminist Activism

The case for women's equality in Canada has gained momentum in contemporary times. There have been gains made in women's division of labor, childcare services, and increased participation in sectors traditionally dominated by male counterparts. However, when considering intersectional aspects of those gains for women's equality, women in remote communities, with disabilities, unequal access to education or social services, and those of marginalized heritage, the gains are not realized. Add to this the introduction of increased wealth potential into an area that has been stricken by poverty, lack of infrastructure, social supports, housing, normative violence, drug abuse and cultural genocide. What has occurred in many cases is an increase in those social and economic issues within Indigenous communities around mining development. Sparce regulation of the industry has not advocated for the inclusion of women’s voices in the negotiation of community benefits and scopes of industry development in the area.

In commenting on the necessity to untangle the impacts of patriarchy on Indigenous people and their lack of autonomy through the process of colonization, Karina Czyzewski explains- “What those of us who are non-Indigenous wish for ourselves, ought to be what we wish for others: that is, having control over one’s life, one’s environment and having autonomy. At the same time, we understand autonomy to be grounded in belonging—in family, community, nation, and place—and essential to the wellness of all of us. If we recognize the importance of this to our own health and well-being, then we ought to support the aspirations of others.” (Czyzewski & Tester, 2014. Pg. 213).

The organization First Nations Women Advocating Responsible Mining (FNWARM) was first created in 2009 by First Nations women that had been directly affected through years of irresponsible mining practices in British Columbia. A group of women banded together so share their perspectives and amplify their voice in BC politics. They engaged in various activist techniques that included social media, collaboration, and the use of humour to raise awareness of the impacts of mining on Indigenous women. In 2010 they placed a wanted ad for responsible mining companies that read like they were looking for a romantic relationship and in 2017 they took out a claim on Minister Bill Bennett’s Cranbrook property to demonstrate the ease with which they could stake claims in BC as a mining company. (Jacinda Mack interview, FNWARM, p. 7). Since they brought the claim on his personal property, BC has strengthened their regulations for making exploration claims.

FNWARM’s aims were to raise the issues of a grave need for environmental and social protections that were not being addressed. For decades they observed how the industry claimed pieces of their territory and their citizens were promised high paying, wealth-building jobs. What they saw were low-paying jobs, environmental damage on the land they depended, and increased social traumas. Some of the social aspects were the impact of the mines on their families and communities through the environmental degradation, loss of food, inclusion of drugs, and increased violence against the women. (BC Studies Editor, pg. 6). Jacinda Mack mentions the economic pressure to allow the mining industry into their land as well as the social pressure from the rest of Canada who are not affected by the impacts listed above. The perception of mainstream society increases the danger of these groups in speaking out against industrial development in their area. Her perception is one of danger from society in general through the misunderstanding and placement of capitalist activities over the continuity of their people. While not against mining development, FNWARM advocates for responsible mining practices, with respectful negotiations that recognize their rights as a First Nations people. Her recommendations for the industry are of stricter regulations for claims, reclamation, and employing best practices. (BC Studies Editor, pg. 8).

The use of Indigenous knowledge is also incredibly important as women are considered important guardians for the natural resources in their communities (Levac, 2018). FemNorthNet, through collaboration with Indigenous women in Northern communities has also worked to provide recommendations on industry best practices in negotiations and working with Indigenous populations. (FemNorthNet-CRIAW, 2021). While not specifically Indigenous run, this organization works towards empowering Indigenous women in Northern communities through advocacy, research, and publishing of findings for political or public use. It is diverse, culturally appropriate, and acknowledges the intersectionality of women’s marginalization through collaborations with the Canadian Research Institution for the Advancement of Women

Indigenous women are also taking the initiative to impact the industry that they have grown up around in their territories. Across Canada, Indigenous communities have had relationships with the industry that is one sided and heavily favored to the mining company in their interactions. Through their present geographic environments, many Indigenous communities are at the whim of economic development initiatives that are proposed in their territories. When they have increased costs of living or a chance at a better lifestyle, their hands can be tied with the choices to endure most of the negatives of the industry while also benefiting from it.

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6.3 Indigenous Women’s Support for the Mining Industry

There is no doubt that the mining industry is a major part of the Canadian economy and contributes to overall employment through direct and indirect labour. As of 2019, the mining industry accounts for over 719,000 jobs in Canada, contributing to the stability and wealth of the economy. The Canadian Mining Labour Outlook projects the need for skilled employees to grow by over 79,000 new hires by 2030. (Marshall, 2020). When reporting on the numbers of people employed and the benefit of the industry, intersectionality is rarely included as this would show the glaring difference between women and men as well as areas of employment. If the issue of women’s lack of employment in the industry are analyzed and the culture of the industry changed to accommodate the differing social roles based on their gender, then they are more likely to benefit in this increase in economic opportunity. Organizations such as Women in Mining (WIM) have been at the forefront of advocating for a change in the industry towards one of inclusion, diversity, and equity (WIM, 2010). Acknowledging the current culture as being one that has women leaving the industry within 5-10 years, resulting in less retention for female senior management retention. Indigenous women especially have been targeted for support by WIM and the need to retain diverse female mining workers.

Steps need to be taken to increase then the cultural match, education, and basic needs for the local population to serve their needs to increase equitable opportunities. Mining development tends to be situated in rural areas that are Indigenous territory, traditionally used for wildlife management and subsistence activities for communities in the area (Meyersfeld, 2019). Impact benefit agreements are one form of negotiation that has helped to advocate for a portion of the benefits to be given to Indigenous communities around development. Including yearly independent monitoring within those agreements and advocating for a more transparent process where First Nations are privy to previous agreements with the industry would increase the potential positive impacts for all in the community.

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7.???? Recommendations

7.1 Creating Opportunities Through Partnerships & Employment

One of the ways to transfer the knowledge of skilled workers in mining is to employ traditional activities of First Nations communities by mentoring, internships and increasing the accessibility into the industry by local people. Companies such as NexGen Energy Ltd. has stepped forward on this aspect and has created a summer student mentorship program headed by First Nations people in the Athabasca region that has provided 30 students over the past 5 years with further skills development. Some have also benefited through bursaries for higher education through the program (Israelson, 2019). Cameco also has a social development program and focus on partnerships with First Nations as they are a strong employer of Indigenous people in Northern Saskatchewan (Cameco, 2021). Since 2004, Cameco has contributed $3.92 billion in partnerships with Northern industry which continues to expand the economic benefits for the region (2019). There is no gender data on the employment breakdown or focus on engagement of Indigenous women, so assumptions are made that they continue to be employed in typical female roles at lower wages and more temporary work conditions.

The Athabasca region has multiple organizations that are held by the First Nations communities through partnership and shareholders. Some of these are Kitsaki Development Corporation (owned by Lac La Ronge Indian Band), Athabasca Catering, Northern Resource Trucking, PineHouse Business North, Points Athabasca, and Tron (Cameco North, 2021). In 2019, more than $52 million was spent with seven Basin Indigenous owned businesses including West Wind Aviation, Points North Group of Companies, Athabasca Basin Security, PACLP, Athabasca Catering, Team Drilling and Flyer Electric (Cameco & Orano, 2019). Economic benefits are proven to be a positive impact in the region through the expansion and support for these First Nations owned industry. Prosperity can be a real impact for those in the community that engage with a career in mining or band council to which the companies have negotiated the contracts, but this does not mean it translates to greater wealth or strength for all members in the community. Assessments of the impacts for socio-economic and environmental aspects of their actions require independent research, direct interactions with communities, and support for the advancement of the population in this area. Many in the mining industry are ready to change their processes to increase their efficacy and lessen the impacts of their activities on the community.

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7.2 Gender Inclusion in Impact Assessment

The issue of gender inclusion in impact assessments is a common-sense change that needs to be supported, especially where there is a major differentiation in the benefits or harms received by people in Northern communities of mining development. As Candyce Paul of English River First Nation comments in her interview with Climate Justice Saskatoon, the mining industry does not consult effectively with their communities before they enter their territory. Many times, it is only the elected leadership with which they consult and there is no democratic system enacted of receiving consent from most band members. In one instance, she describes feelings of condescension and belittlement by the industry through their offerings of trifling gifts in return for the damage caused by their presence (Climate Justice Saskatoon, 2017.) Due to the nature of the agreements being highly secretive and, in some cases, having including gag orders, the lack of transparency and accountability is highly destructive for a community. This in turn creates issues with legitimacy of fair representation and increases the marginalization of those that have not been included in the process.

The inclusion of gender as a lens with which to assess the impact of mining in a community or on the surrounding populations is necessary, as the societal implications for the differentiation placed on both sexes are quite different (Meyersfeld, 2019: 155). To forgo the opportunity to recognize the different experiences of each sex is to leave out a major component for the impact assessment and render it illegitimate. Engagement in this part of the process, from the inception of the economic development is extremely important as it gives a voice to the First Nations community and those that are engaged in the process. It also allows for reporting, monitoring, and efforts for equitable job production to be built into these agreements with gender as a main component of assessing the efficacy of the agreement. Industry engagement in First Nations is also a large part of how many communities have attained greater levels of independence, finances for infrastructure or supporting their own populations industry, and a major source of revenue in lieu of tax revenue (Mannings, 2018: 16).

A widespread problem with the impact assessments done by the mining industry is through their failure to consult with all the stakeholders and affected first nations. This could be through their own pursuit of narrowing the consultation process or it could be from a lack of understanding with who is affected, their territorial traditions, or local decision-making (Doyle, 2019. 145). Prior to the introduction of Bill C-69, the human rights impact assessments the industry was required to perform were without a gendered analysis and did not go into detail on the socio-economic impact of the industry presence. What the potential use for the impact benefit agreement or a human rights assessment is, would be as a tool for the either company or community to monitor these impacts throughout the whole project instead of solely at the beginning stage. These impact evaluations should go hand in hand with the Free, Prior, and informed Consent (FPIC) principles directed by the United Nations to protect the rights of Indigenous populations around the world (Doyle, pg. 136).

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7.3 Government & Industry Accountability

Holding industry accountable for human rights violations is one of the main principles of the United Nations directives in UNDRIP as the world has enacted genocide on Indigenous peoples for centuries. The inclusion of women is fundamentally important to the progression of society towards one of equal rights for all, something which Canada enjoys claiming in the international community. The Environmental & Impact assessments have immense potential to be an effective and equalizing tool for all stakeholders to rely on in the engagement of an extractive development project. Since Indigenous women have been further marginalized by the impact of their exclusion from equal economic benefits as their male counterparts, gendering the community-company agreements and increasing women’s voices and opinions during these processes is one way to encourage more equitable practices (LaBelle, Stephanie. Pg. 5) Impact Agreements can be constructed in a way that holds mining operations accountable to the ill effects of their activities in and around the mine site. One such agreement is the Meadowbank Agreement in Northern Nunavut between the Agnico-Eagle Mines and the Kivalliq Inuit Association. This contract allowed for the recognition of the likelihood of negative impacts, along with positive, on the areas Inuit people related to the mining companies' presence. They stipulated for a yearly wellness report which would monitor the mental health, addictions, cultural loss, and decline of familial relations in the communities in the area (Nightengale et al. 2017. Pg. 370). Again, one of the major omissions from this agreement was the absence of including gendered aspects for those that benefit more or were more likely to be disadvantaged.

Across Canada, First Nations communities are in collaboration on the management of the natural resources and advocating for their participation with the implementation of resource projects across the nation. The Indian Resource Council is one such organization that has membership from across Canada, working with other First Nations to discuss the opportunities, impacts, and needs of their communities while also working with the resource extraction industries. At the time of this writing, there were no Saskatchewan First Nations on this council (Indian Resource Council, 2021.) Another organization that works towards First Nations management of resources and collaboration with the industry is the First Nations Major Projects Coalition. The chair for this coalition is an Indigenous woman, Sharleen Gale, who was a Chief in her community and a leader in the extractive industries relations with Indigenous communities in Alberta (FNMPC, 2021). The FNMPC builds resource packages for First Nations communities so that they can be better prepared in their negotiations with the industry. First Nation input and representation is crucial to actualize the culture of equity that Canada purports to have in the global community.

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7.4? Conclusion

The historical factors that are present in the mining industry through their associated ties with colonial institutions and being a product of capitalism, include a reinforcement of misogynistic practices that perceive Indigenous women as less valuable. This culture within the industry perpetuates women’s oppression through colonial imposition, culture of violence, and lack of gendered engagement in the negotiation process. To assess the effectiveness of current processes around negotiations, I researched their current and historical participation during the impact assessment process and the ongoing monitoring of the impacts on their communities. My findings show that they have largely been left out of the impact assessment process either through disregarding their presence in the negotiations or complete exclusion through pervading cultures of misogyny, racism, and continued marginalization of Indigenous women. There have been improvements taken on by the extractive industry, as well as government regulation imposed upon their practices, specifically in Indigenous territories. However, since much of Canada’s rich mineral deposits accessible for extraction are in hereditary Indigenous territories with nations that depend on their natural resource abundance for sustenance, industry needs to work with the communities more authentically to decrease the disproportionately negative impacts they have incurred on women to date.

With climate change and the push for renewable energy through initiatives such as the global sustainable development goals require industry to change their processes and alter their methods for conducting business. Holding the industry accountable to these goals by aligning the targets and calls for action also helps the industry in their public image and social acceptance (Fair Mining Collaborative, 2015). Moving forward in building sustainable relationships between companies and communities requires their commitment to social and economic development within the regions they work in. Regulation by federal and provincial legal standards is one way to increase the transparency, while also protecting against the negative impacts that have historically followed mining activities. Increasing the support for women in Northern communities through grants, scholarships, childcare centers or building infrastructure that allows them to voice their concerns in a collaborative way would help to build legitimate social license with their operations. To realize reconciliation, as well as to work towards a sustainable industry, future policy and actions must be guided by the principles of respect, understanding, and self-governance to all First Nations, but especially those disproportionately impacted by historical circumstances.

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Acronyms

Bill C-69- The modernization of the National Energy Board and Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency passed in 2019.

MMIWG- Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls. A national inquiry that researched the disproportionate number of Indigenous women and girls missing or murdered that have gone unresolved in Canada. The resulting document was published in 2019 called “Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls”.

UNDRIP- United Nations Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous People.

FPIC- Free, Prior, and Informed Consent.

WIM- Women in Mining.

FNWARM- First Nations Women Advocating Responsible Mining.

TRC- Truth and Reconciliation Commission, resulting in 94 Calls to Action.

NWAC- Native Women’s Association of Canada

IBA- Impact & Benefit Agreement

FemNorthNet- Group of researchers in collaboration with Canadian Research Institute for the Advancement of Women that specialize in Northern women’s issues.

CRIAW- Canadian Research Institute for the Advancement of Women.

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