Maldives Water Crisis: from Scarcity to Sustainability?

Maldives: Water Challenges and Solutions

The Maldives, an archipelago of 26 atolls in the Indian Ocean, consists of nearly 1,200 islands, about 200 of which are inhabited. With a population of around 530,000 people as of 2024, about a quarter of them live in the densely populated capital, Malé. The Maldives experiences a floating population due to daily migration for education, medical, and commercial purposes, as well as a significant influx of tourists, which puts additional strain on its resources. The country’s population continues to grow at an annual rate of 1.9%. Similar to other low-lying Small Island Developing States (SIDS), the Maldives faces significant challenges with freshwater resources due to their lack of , lakes, and other freshwater sources, making groundwater and rainwater harvesting critical for survival. However, the groundwater systems are stressed due to overuse and contamination, making desalination a vital in maintaining resilience and acting as an alternative for drinking water(CRS Reports)

Rainfall and groundwater are the primary water sources for both drinking and domestic needs. However, due to the increasing demand and contamination risks, the capital city of Malé and the densely populated island of Kadholhudhoo were forced to switch to expensive desalination systems. These systems have become a necessity, especially in tourism, with 87 resorts now relying on desalination plants on their respective islands. The high revenues from tourism make desalination viable, but relying on a single water source is unsustainable.

In the early 1900s, groundwater contamination became a serious issue in the Maldives, leading to the introduction of rainwater tanks in 1906. Initially, these tanks provided a total storage capacity of 96,975 liters, supplying 1,485 liters of water daily to the population. However, by the 1970s, rapid development and migration to Malé put immense pressure on the aquifers, leading to widespread pollution and contamination. The deteriorating water quality resulted in outbreaks of waterborne diseases like cholera, diarrhea, shigella, and typhoid due to poor sanitation.

To address this crisis, the Maldives established the Water and Sanitation Authority in 1975. At the time, the country was consuming 1.3 million liters of water daily, and waterborne diseases were taking many lives. The cholera outbreak in 1978 and the shigella outbreak in 1982 underscored the urgent need for a national water and sewage management project.

By the 1990s, the Maldives began investing in desalination technology as a more reliable water source, with government policies ensuring that all islands met basic water requirements. Rainwater harvesting also gained popularity to support the growing population, resulting in the installation of 1,700 ferrocement rainwater tanks and 3,000 household tanks. While these efforts have helped, many households remain without rainwater storage systems. Some atolls, like Meemu, have achieved high coverage, with 80% of households equipped with tanks. Yet, most of the country's water still comes from groundwater tanks, despite efforts to increase rainwater harvesting and use community lakes.

Unfortunately, groundwater in the Maldives is shallow and vulnerable to pollution, making it susceptible to salinity issues. Over-extraction of groundwater can lead to salinity intrusion, further diminishing the freshwater supply.

Groundwater contamination in the Maldives is largely caused by poor sanitation practices outside the capital. Many households have improperly built soakaways and septic tanks made from corrosive materials that are prone to leaks and rarely desludged. These systems often contain harmful pathogens and have short retention times, leading to contamination of household wells. During the dry season, over-extraction can cause seawater intrusion, compounding the problem. A 2001 study revealed that 80% of households on Naifaru in the Lhaviyani Atoll had water contaminated with coliform and fecal matter—a common issue on densely populated islands.

The high cost of desalinated water, at $63 per unit from the Malé Coca-Cola Company, is a deterrent for many local residents. This mirrors challenges faced by many Small Island Developing States (SIDS), where fragmented programs, limited technical and financial capacity, and inadequate integration hinder effective water management. The customary land tenure system often leads to poor land maintenance, and governments struggle with limited resources to address these challenges. There is a widespread belief that water provision is a social service rather than an essential element for economic and national development. Consequently, authorities are often constrained in data collection, coordination, and implementing sustainable strategies, particularly as urbanization and changing land-use patterns outpace water supply capacity. The legal framework for water resource management also remains insufficient.

The Maldives Health Master Plan (1996-2005) was developed to address these pressing water challenges. Its key initiatives included increasing household water tanks to meet annual demand, renovating existing tanks and catchment areas, and promoting direct injection of rainwater into household wells. The plan also called for the construction of underground rainwater wells, community education, and advocacy. New schemes were piloted to mitigate contamination and salinity risks, and electric pumps were discouraged to prevent groundwater depletion. The plan emphasized water quality monitoring, the development of geographic information systems, water balance studies, and the design of efficient pumping systems, such as infiltration galleries.

This holistic approach to water resource management is essential for ensuring the sustainability of the Maldives' water supply in the face of climate change and growing populations.

Water Scarcity and Groundwater Contamination

The Maldives’ climate is tropical, with high humidity levels of around 80% and an average temperature of 30°C. While the islands rely on rainfall for water supply, the increasing population and development pressures have strained groundwater resources, particularly in densely populated areas like Malé. The islands also experience a distinct dry season from January to April, which further exacerbates the issue(CRS Reports).

Groundwater in the Maldives has been increasingly compromised by poor sanitation practices, inadequate septic systems, and improper waste disposal. The use of poorly constructed septic tanks and soakaways allows contamination to seep into the groundwater. Many of these tanks are not maintained or desludged regularly, leading to severe pollution. For example, in 2001, 80% of households on the island of Naifaru in Lhaviyani Atoll showed signs of coliform and fecal contamination in their water(CRS Reports).

The high cost of desalinated water, such as that provided by the Malé Coca-Cola Company at $63 per cubic meter, is a barrier for many local residents. As a result, the reliance on rainwater harvesting and groundwater wells remains widespread, though many islands continue to face water scarcity and contamination issues(CRS Reports).

Desalination and Rainwater Harvesting Efforts

Due to the pollution and over-extraction of groundwater, the Maldives government has invested in desalination plants across its tourism resorts and islands. Desalination provides a reliable water source for both locals and tourists, funded in part by the revenue generated from the tourism industry. Rainwater harvesting systems, which have been in use since the early 1900s, also remain a key component of water management across the islands. By 2024, approximately 1,700 ferrocement rainwater tanks and 3,000 smaller tanks had been installed across the Maldives, with a focus on atolls with higher populations(CRS Reports).

Despite these measures, water shortages remain a serious concern. Over-extraction of groundwater can lead to salinity intrusion, which further limits the availability of potable water. Addressing these challenges requires ongoing investment in desalination technology, better sanitation practices, and increased capacity for rainwater harvesting(CRS Reports).

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Policy and Infrastructure Development

The Maldives has recognized the need for comprehensive water management policies to combat the ongoing water crisis. In 1996, the government introduced the Health Master Plan (1996–2005), which laid out a framework for improving water resources. The plan emphasized increasing rainwater storage capacity for households, renovating existing infrastructure, and promoting the injection of rainwater into household wells. Community education and advocacy were also identified as key to ensuring the successful implementation of these strategies(CRS Reports)

Efforts to improve water quality monitoring, develop geographical water balance studies, and design appropriate pumping systems have been prioritized. However, the country’s limited financial resources and fragmented administrative capacities remain a barrier to full implementation. As a Small Island Developing State, the Maldives continues to face challenges in mobilizing the technical and financial support needed to secure its water resources for future generations.

The Maldives has implemented several key policies and regulations aimed at strengthening its water security, making the country more resilient to climate change and water scarcity. As a low-lying island nation highly dependent on its fragile freshwater resources, these policies play a crucial role in safeguarding its population and sustaining its vital tourism industry. The following policies are central to this effort:

1. Maldives Water and Sewerage Act (2020)

This comprehensive act provides the legal framework for managing and regulating water and sewerage services across the Maldives. The act ensures that all inhabited islands have access to safe and reliable potable water, along with proper sanitation services. By establishing service providers and setting standards for water quality, infrastructure development, and pricing, this act helps prevent water shortages and guarantees that even remote islands are served. It enhances the country’s resilience by prioritizing access to clean water, especially as climate change threatens freshwater availability due to rising sea levels and increased salinity in groundwater.

2. National Water and Sewerage Policy

The National Water and Sewerage Policy promotes integrated water resource management (IWRM) as a critical strategy for enhancing the Maldives' resilience. This policy emphasizes balancing the use of different water sources, such as groundwater, desalination, and rainwater harvesting, to reduce dependence on a single source. With tourism being a major driver of the Maldivian economy, this policy ensures that resort islands and inhabited islands alike have robust water storage and treatment systems. The policy helps build resilience by encouraging diversification of water sources, thus mitigating the risks posed by climate variability and water resource depletion.

3. Water and Sanitation Regulation

This regulation sets rigorous standards for water treatment, distribution, and wastewater management. It mandates that resorts and large establishments have independent water treatment and wastewater facilities, ensuring they are self-sufficient and not reliant on mainland resources. Furthermore, the regulation promotes rainwater harvesting as a sustainable practice and enforces the proper treatment of wastewater to prevent contamination of groundwater and marine environments. These measures help maintain water quality and availability, which is essential for resilience in a country where climate impacts can quickly disrupt water supply systems.

4. Maldives Desalination Regulation

Given the country’s growing reliance on desalination for potable water, especially in areas like the capital Malé and resort islands, the Maldives Desalination Regulation sets strict environmental and operational guidelines. Desalination plants must operate within parameters that protect marine ecosystems from pollution and overuse. This regulation also promotes the efficient operation of desalination plants, ensuring they contribute to long-term water security. By controlling the environmental impact of desalination and ensuring its sustainable use, the policy helps bolster the country’s adaptive capacity against the threat of freshwater scarcity.

Resilience Through Policy Implementation

These policies collectively contribute to the Maldives’ resilience by ensuring that water resources are managed sustainably and efficiently. The integration of rainwater harvesting, desalination, and proper wastewater treatment helps mitigate the risk of water shortages and pollution, which are exacerbated by climate change. By enforcing regulations that promote water self-sufficiency, especially for the tourism sector, the Maldives can better withstand environmental pressures, reduce reliance on vulnerable freshwater sources, and safeguard the well-being of its population.

potential strategies that could help resolve the water crisis in the Maldives:

1. Decentralized Desalination with Renewable Energy

The Maldives has already implemented desalination systems, but the reliance on expensive fossil fuels makes it unsustainable. Instead, integrating renewable energy (solar, wind, or wave power) into desalination plants can reduce costs and environmental impact. Solar-powered desalination units can be deployed across islands, reducing dependency on centralized systems and ensuring water availability in remote areas.

2. Floating Solar Farms

Given the limited landmass and high sunshine availability, floating solar farms could be a game-changer. By placing solar panels on the surface of lagoons or sheltered sea areas, the Maldives can harness solar energy to power both desalination and electricity needs without using up valuable land resources. This also reduces water evaporation, a secondary benefit in water conservation efforts.

3. Rainwater Harvesting at Scale

Expand and upgrade the rainwater harvesting infrastructure on each island, particularly in residential and commercial areas. Modular rainwater harvesting systems can be introduced, allowing homes and businesses to collect and store rainwater more efficiently. A government-backed incentive program could encourage wider adoption of these systems, even in tourism sectors. Coupled with filtration systems, rainwater can become a reliable source for both drinking and irrigation.

4. Artificial Aquifers and Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR)

Create artificial aquifers by injecting excess rainwater into depleted groundwater tables. Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) systems can be established, where rainwater or desalinated water is actively injected into the ground to replenish aquifers during the rainy season. This helps mitigate seawater intrusion and maintains a reserve of fresh water during droughts.

5. Water Recycling and Reuse

Invest in greywater recycling and sewage treatment plants that allow for water to be reused for non-potable purposes, such as irrigation and landscaping. Hotels, resorts, and larger residential buildings can incorporate advanced wastewater treatment technologies that turn wastewater into safe, clean water for non-drinking purposes, easing the pressure on potable water supplies.

6. Smart Water Grids and Leak Detection

Implement smart water grid systems with sensors that monitor water usage, detect leaks, and manage water distribution more efficiently. Reducing water loss due to leaks can conserve significant amounts of fresh water. These systems can be combined with data analytics to predict peak usage times and ensure that desalination and rainwater harvesting systems are optimized for demand.

7. Mobile Water Treatment Units

Deploy mobile water treatment units that can be moved to different islands during times of crisis or during the dry season. These units can desalinate or purify water, offering flexible and timely solutions, especially during emergencies or natural disasters.

8. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Big Data for Water Management

Utilize AI and big data to manage water resources efficiently. Predictive models can forecast rainfall patterns, desalination needs, and consumption trends, allowing the government and utility companies to make data-driven decisions. AI can also help in optimizing the operation of desalination plants, energy use, and water distribution networks.

9. Fog and Dew Harvesting

In areas with high humidity, fog and dew harvesting systems could capture moisture from the air. These systems use mesh nets or specially designed surfaces to condense and collect water, providing an additional water source during periods of low rainfall. This could be particularly beneficial for the smaller islands that struggle with freshwater access.

10. Aquaponics and Hydroponics for Sustainable Agriculture

Agricultural practices in the Maldives could benefit from the adoption of aquaponics and hydroponics systems that use significantly less water than traditional farming. These techniques allow crops to be grown using recirculated water, and in some cases, fish farming (aquaponics) can provide both food and water savings. Scaling up such systems on resort islands can reduce the demand for freshwater for agriculture.

11. Policy Reforms and Incentives

Introduce policy reforms and financial incentives to encourage the adoption of water-saving technologies. Tax breaks, subsidies, or grants for businesses and residents that invest in water conservation, desalination, or rainwater harvesting could stimulate widespread adoption. Strict regulations on water usage, as well as incentives for water-efficient tourism infrastructure, can help reduce overall consumption.

12. Community Education and Awareness

An essential component of any solution is community education. Local communities need to be actively engaged in water conservation efforts, understanding the limitations of freshwater resources, and adopting water-saving habits. Educational programs, in partnership with schools, community groups, and resorts, can promote sustainable water use practices.

By combining these innovative solutions, the Maldives can build a more resilient and sustainable water system that not only addresses current challenges but also prepares the country for future climate and population pressures.

Looking Ahead

The Maldives' ongoing struggle with water scarcity and contamination highlights the broader issues faced by many island nations worldwide. Despite progress in implementing desalination systems and rainwater harvesting, the Maldives must continue to improve its water management strategies. With better infrastructure, greater investment in sanitation, and continued international support, the Maldives can build a more resilient future for its people and environment.