Loving kindness
Metta bhavana, or loving-kindness meditation, is a method of developing compassion. It comes from the Buddhist tradition, but it can be adapted and practiced by anyone, regardless of religious affiliation; loving-kindness meditation is essentially about cultivating love.
Loving-kindness, or metta, as it in called in the Pali language, is unconditional, inclusive love, a love with wisdom. It has no conditions; it does not depend on whether one “deserves” it or not; it is not restricted to friends and family; it extends out from personal categories to include all living beings. There are no expectations of anything in return. This is the ideal, pure love, which everyone has in potential. We begin with loving ourselves, for unless we have a measure of this unconditional love and acceptance for ourselves, it is difficult to extend it to others. Then we include others who are special to us, and, ultimately, all living things. Gradually, both the visualisation and the meditation phrases blend into the actual experience, the feeling of loving kindness.
This is a meditation of care, concern, tenderness, loving kindness, friendship–a feeling of warmth for oneself and others. The practice is the softening of the mind and heart, an opening to deeper and deeper levels of the feeling of kindness, of pure love. Loving kindness is without any desire to possess another. It is not a sentimental feeling of goodwill, not an obligation, but comes from a selfless place. It does not depend on relationships, on how the other person feels about us. The process is first one of softening, breaking down barriers that we feel inwardly toward ourselves, and then those that we feel toward others.
Loving kindness meditation can improve both our relationships and our mental health.
References
Alba, B. (2013). Loving-kindness meditation: a field study. Contemp. Buddhism 14, 187–203. doi: 10.1037/a0013262
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, 2nd Edn. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Cohn, M. A., and Fredrickson, B. L. (2010). In search of durable positive psychology interventions: predictors and consequences of long-term positive behavior change. J. Posit. Psychol. 5, 355–366. doi: 10.1080/17439760.2010.508883
Crane, C., Jandric, D., Barnhofer, T., and Williams, J. M. G. (2010). Dispositional mindfulness, meditation, and conditional goal setting. Mindfulness 1, 204–214. doi: 10.1007/s12671-010-0029-y
Diener, E., Lucas, R. E., and Scollon, C. N. (2006). Beyond the hedonic treadmill: revising the adaptation theory of well-being. Am. Psychol. 61, 305–314. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.61.4.305
Engstr?m, M., and S?derfeldt, B. (2010). Brain activation during compassion meditation: a case study. J. Altern. Complement. Med. 16, 597–599. doi: 10.1089/acm.2009.0309
Feldman, G., Greeson, J., and Senville, J. (2010). Differential effects of mindful breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, and loving-kindness meditation on decentering and negative reactions to repetitive thoughts. Behav. Res. Ther. 48, 1002–1011. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2010.06.006
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. Am. Psychol. 56, 218–226. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218
Fredrickson, B. L., Cohn, M. A., Coffey, K. A., Pek, J., and Finkel, S. M. (2008). Open hearts build lives: positive emotions, induced through loving-kindness meditation, build consequential personal resources. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 95, 1045–1062. doi: 10.1037/a0013262
Gable, P., and Harmon-Jones, E. (2010). The motivational dimensional model of affect: implications for breadth of attention, memory, and cognitive categorisation. Cogn. Emot. 24, 322–337. doi: 10.1080/02699930903378305
Galante, J., Galante, I., Bekkers, M. J., and Gallacher, J. (2014). Effect of kindness-based meditation on health and well-being: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 82, 1101–1114. doi: 10.1037/a0037249
Garrison, K. A., Scheinost, D., Constable, R. T., and Brewer, J. A. (2014). BOLD signal and functional connectivity associated with loving kindness meditation. Brain Behav.4, 337–347. doi: 10.1002/brb3.219
Hedges, L., and Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical Models for Meta-analysis. New York, NY: Academic Press.
Hofmann, S. G., Grossman, P., and Hinton, D. E. (2011). Loving-kindness and compassion meditation: potential for psychological interventions. Clin. Psychol. Rev.31, 1126–1132. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2011.07.003
Hutcherson, C. A., Seppala, E. M., and Gross, J. J. (2008). Loving-kindness meditation increases social connectedness. Emotion 8, 720–724. doi: 10.1037/a0013237
Hutcherson, C. A., Seppala, E. M., and Gross, J. J. (2015). The neural correlates of social connection. Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci. 15, 1–14.
Jazaieri, H., McGonigal, K., Jinpa, T., Doty, J. R., Gross, J. J., and Goldin, P. R. (2014). A randomized controlled trial of compassion cultivation training: effects on mindfulness, affect, and emotion regulation. Motiv. Emot. 38, 23–35. doi: 10.1007/s11031-013-9368-z
Johnson, D. P., Penn, D. L., Fredrickson, B. L., Kring, A. M., Meyer, P. S., Catalino, L. I., et al. (2011). A pilot study of loving-kindness meditation for the negative symptoms of schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 129, 137–140. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2011.02.015
Judge, L., Cleghorn, A., McEwan, K., and Gilbert, P. (2012). An exploration of group-based compassion focused therapy for a heterogeneous range of clients presenting to a community mental health team. Int. J. Cogn. Ther. 5, 420–429. doi: 10.1521/ijct.2012.5.4.420
Kang, Y., Gray, J. R., and Dovidio, J. F. (2015). The head and the heart: effects of understanding and experiencing loving-kindness on attitudes toward the self and others. Mindfulness 6, 1063–1070. doi: 10.1007/s12671-014-0355-6
Kearney, D. J., McManus, C., Malte, C. A., Martinez, M. E., Felleman, B., and Simpson, T. L. (2014). Loving-kindness meditation and the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions among veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Med. Care 52, S32–S38. doi: 10.1097/MLR.0000000000000221
Klimecki, O. M., Leiberg, S., Lamm, C., and Singer, T. (2013). Functional neural plasticity and associated changes in positive affect after compassion training. Cereb. Cortex 23, 1552–1561. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhs142
Klimecki, O. M., Leiberg, S., Ricard, M., and Singer, T. (2014). Differential pattern of functional brain plasticity after compassion and empathy training. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 9, 873–879. doi: 10.1093/scan/nst060
Kok, B. E., Coffey, K. A., Cohn, M. A., Catalino, L. I., Vacharkulksemsuk, T., Algoe, S. B., et al. (2013). How positive emotions build physical health perceived positive social connections account for the upward spiral between positive emotions and vagal tone. Psychol. Sci. 24, 1123–1132. doi: 10.1177/0956797612470827
Koopmann-Holm, B., Sze, J., Ochs, C., and Tsai, J. L. (2013). Buddhist-inspired meditation increases the value of calm. Emotion 13, 497–505. doi: 10.1037/a0031070
Lee, T. M., Leung, M. K., Hou, W. K., Tang, J. C., Yin, J., So, K. F., et al. (2012). Distinct neural activity associated with focused-attention meditation and loving-kindness meditation. PLoS ONE 7:e40054. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0040054
Lee, Y. C., Lin, Y. C., Huang, C. L., and Fredrickson, B. L. (2013). The construct and measurement of peace of mind. J. Happiness Stud. 14, 571–590. doi: 10.1007/s10902-012-9343-5
Leiberg, S., Klimecki, O., and Singer, T. (2011). Short-term compassion training increases prosocial behavior in a newly developed prosocial game. PLoS ONE6:e17798. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0017798
Lutz, A., Greischar, L. L., Perlman, D. M., and Davidson, R. J. (2009). BOLD signal in insula is differentially related to cardiac function during compassion meditation in experts vs. novices. Neuroimage 47, 1038–1046. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.04.081
Lyubomirsky, S., and Lepper, H. S. (1999). A measure of subjective happiness: preliminary reliability and construct validation. Soc. Indic. Res. 46, 137–155. doi: 10.1023/A:1006824100041
Mascaro, J. S., Darcher, A., Negi, L. T., and Raison, C. (2015). The neural mediators of kindness-based meditation: a theoretical model. Front. Psychol. 6:109. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00109
May, C. J., Burgard, M., Mena, M., Abbasi, I., Bernhardt, N., Clemens, S., et al. (2011). Short-term training in loving-kindness meditation produces a state, but not a trait, alteration of attention. Mindfulness 2, 143–153. doi: 10.1007/s12671-011-0053-6
May, C. J., Weyker, J. R., Spengel, S. K., Finkler, L. J., and Hendrix, S. E. (2014). Tracking longitudinal changes in affect and mindfulness caused by concentration and loving-kindness meditation with hierarchical linear modeling. Mindfulness 5, 249–258. doi: 10.1007/s12671-012-0172-8
Neff, K. (2003). Self-compassion: an alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself. Self Identity 2, 85–101. doi: 10.1080/15298860309032
Neff, K. D., and Germer, C. K. (2013). A pilot study and randomized controlled trial of the mindful self-compassion program. J. Clin. Psychol. 69, 28–44. doi: 10.1002/jclp.21923
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Parks, S., Birtel, M. D., and Crisp, R. J. (2014). Evidence that a brief meditation exercise can reduce prejudice toward homeless people. Soc. Psychol. 45, 458–465. doi: 10.1027/1864-9335
Reddy, S. D., Negi, L. T., Dodson-Lavelle, B., Ozawa-de Silva, B., Pace, T. W., Cole, S. P., et al. (2013). Cognitive-based compassion training: a promising prevention strategy for at-risk adolescents. J. Child Fam. Stud. 22, 219–230. doi: 10.1007/s10826-012-9571-7
Russell, J. A. (1980). A circumplex model of affect. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 39, 1161–1178. doi: 10.1037/h0077714
Schutte, N. S. (2014). The broaden and build process: positive affect, ratio of positive to negative affect and general self-efficacy. J. Posit. Psychol. 9, 66–74. doi: 10.1080/17439760.2013.841280
Sears, S., and Kraus, S. (2009). I think therefore I om: cognitive distortions and coping style as mediators for the effects of mindfulness meditation on anxiety, positive and negative affect, and hope. J. Clin. Psychol. 65, 561–573. doi: 10.1002/jclp.20543
Sears, S. R., Kraus, S., Carlough, K., and Treat, E. (2011). Perceived benefits and doubts of participants in a weekly meditation study. Mindfulness 2, 167–174. doi: 10.1007/s12671-011-0055-4
Seppala, E. M., Hutcherson, C. A., Nguyen, D. T., Doty, J. R., and Gross, J. J. (2014). Loving-kindness meditation: a tool to improve healthcare provider compassion, resilience, and patient care. J. Compassionate Health Care 1, 5. doi: 10.1186/s40639-014-0005-9
Shahar, B., Szsepsenwol, O., Zilcha-Mano, S., Haim, N., Zamir, O., Levi-Yeshuvi, S., et al. (2014). A wait-list randomized controlled trial of loving-kindness meditation programme for self-criticism. Clin. Psychol. Psychother. 22, 346–356. doi: 10.1002/cpp.1893
Shobitha, M., and Kohli, S. K. (2015). Physiological effects of practice of loving-kindness meditation. Int. J. Physiol. 3, 1–3. doi: 10.5958/2320-608X.2015.00001.3
Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., Compare, A., Zangeneh, M., and Griffiths, M. D. (2015). Buddhist-derived loving-kindness and compassion meditation for the treatment of psychopathology: a systematic review. Mindfulness 6, 1161–1180. doi: 10.1007/s12671-014-0368-1
Sujiva, V. (2007). Loving-Kindness Meditation. Available at: https://www.justbegood.net/Downloads/e-books/Meditation%20Loving%20Kindness.pdf
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., and Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 54, 1063–1070. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063
Weng, H. Y., Fox, A. S., Shackman, A. J., Stodola, D. E., Caldwell, J. Z., Olson, M. C., et al. (2013). Compassion training alters altruism and neural responses to suffering. Psychol. Sci. 24, 1171–1180. doi: 10.1177/0956797612469537
Weytens, F., Luminet, O., Verhofstadt, L. L., and Mikolajczak, M. (2014). An integrative theory-driven positive emotion regulation intervention. PLoS ONE9:e95677. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0095677
Wheeler, E. A., and Lenick, N. W. (2014). Brief compassion meditation and recall of positive-emotion words. J. Artic. Support Null Hypothesis 11, 12–20.
Zeng, X., Liu, S., and Liu, X. (2013). The application of loving-kindness meditation from psychological perspective. Adv. Psychol. Sci. 21, 1466–1472. doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2013.01466
Zeng X, Chiu CPK, Wang R, Oei TPS and Leung FYK (2015) The effect of loving-kindness meditation on positive emotions: a meta-analytic review. Front. Psychol. 6:1693. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01693