Lesson 5: Global Warming and Individual Countries

There are two types of goals for mitigation. First there are commitments expressed in terms of Greenhouse gas emissions where they use base year goals i.e.obligation to reduce emissions intensity by a specific level relative to a hysterical base year e.g EUs commitment under Kyoto of 80% reduction compared to the 1990 levels.

There are baseline goals where commitments are made relative to a projected baseline scenario (Business as Usual).

Lastly, there are fixed level goals where obligations to reduce emissions to an absolute level in a target year does not include a reference to a base year/baseline e.g Zero net emission goal of 2050.

There are other mitigation commitments expressed in terms of non-Greenhouse gas emissions: fixed level goals with reference to energy savings, renewables, deforestation etc.

There are various climate change policy instruments for mitigation goals.

First, the Front Door over the Back Door method or vise versa i.e direct climate change policy or indirect climate policy as a side benefit of other policies such as those on energy, are quality, technology and security (the back door).

The second approach is known as the stick over the carrot i.e command and control through laws, regulations and standards or through market based instruments (carbon taxes, cap and trade mechanism or financial incentives).

Now let's see how individual regions are performing.

The European Union represents 28 member states with a combined output of 4,050 Mt of carbon dioxide in 2010. It has been the world's third largest emitter of GHG after China and USA accounting for 12.3% of global carbon dioxide emissions.

EU uses regulatory climate policy approach complemented by market-based instruments (top down). It adopted in 2014 the 2030 Climate and Energy Framework which sets the obligatory base year goal to reduce at least 40% of GHG emissions by 2030 from 1990 levels. The framework also seeks to further non-GHG metric goals i.e one obligatory objective to generate at least 27% of the energy from renewables and one indicative target to improve the energy efficiency by at least 27%.

As an Annex 1 Party, under the UNFCCC, the EU is obliged to assist developing countries to tackle global warming, both in respect of reducing GHG emissions and in adopting to the unavoidable impacts of climate change.

The EU has set up 3 funding mechanisms:

1. The Global Climate Change Alliance

2. The Global Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Fund

3. The Climate Change Windows.

The United States of America (USA)

The USA is the world's largest GHG emitter after China and ahead of the EU. It accounts for 15.9 of global carbon dioxide emissions.

While the USA became party to the UNFCCC inn1992, it refused to ratify Kyoto in 2003, making it the only major industrialized country and the world's largest GHG emitter at the time to do so. It is in the process of pulling out of the Paris Agreement too.

The USA has always opted for voluntary goal of reducing its GHG emissions by 17% below 2005 levels. It has a longer term vision of voluntarily reducing its GHG emissions by 85% by 2050 compared with its 2005 levels.

The country pursuis a back-door approach by trying to attain its emission reduction goals through indirect means based upon the Clean Air Act.

At national level, it has not been willing to adopt legal instruments which directly address climate change issues. The national climate policy is essentially market driven by using financial support tools to improve on low-carbon technologies and renewables.

In order to address the lack of binding climate targets, individual states have introduced obligatory GHG reduction objectives over the past years.

China.

With its output of 8,950 Mt of carbon dioxide in 2010 alone, it's the world's largest GHG emitter, accounting for 27.1% of global carbon dioxide emissions, showing an increase of 10% from 2009 (and increase of 25% from 1990).

Coal constitutes around 70% of China's primary energy - more than twice the international average. It employs mainly Stick climate policy approach through a permit and tax system using various direct regulations, supplemented by some market-based instruments.

China tries to achieve its climate goals indirectly, as side effects of a general development policy (the back door approach). As a Non-Annex 1 (developing) country, it did not have to take on binding mitigation targets under Kyoto or even under the Paris Agreement.

China favors emissions intensity goal as opposed to mere emission goals. It remains a developing country whose focus remains raising the standards of living and expanding infrastructure.

China's regulatory measures include:

1. Multi-sector energy efficiency standards

2. Sectoral energy efficiency standards

3. Fuel standards

4. Voluntary carbon trading schemes

5. Carbon taxes

6. Financial incentives for the development of green energy technology.

Thank you for attending.

End of Class.