“Learning is what they remember after they have forgotten all that you said"

All simulations allow participants to learn through practice by doing but team learning model extends this to include discussion and allowing team members to teach others. So, compared with lectures working in a small team increases retention eighteen-fold (from 5% to 90%)!

Learning is stimulated through the five senses.

There are few stimuli that will activate all five senses at once. Some are more vital than others. A breakdown of how we learn today:

 

           75% through the sense of sight

           13% through the sense of hearing

            6% through the sense of touch

            3% through the sense of smell

            3% through the sense of taste

 

To stimulate learning through the senses:

• Use visual stimuli whenever possible. Learners remember more about what they see.
• Appeal to several senses together for the most efficient learning.
• Use strong stimuli, such as vivid pictures, loud noises, and bright colors, for a better response. (Do not go overboard.)
• Vary the stimuli; repetition of even a strong stimulus becomes monotonous and weakens the desired response.

 

In 451 B.C., Confucius said, “What I hear, I forget; what I see, I remember; but what I do, I understand.”

 

A stimulating presentation requires more preparation, but if a subject is worth remembering, it is worth the effort that it takes to make it memorable.

Building upon the ideas discussed (Multimedia for Multiple Intelligences) concerning Howard Gardner’s book, Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligence, let us look at how one of the nine multiple intelligences that he discusses plays a large role in information retention, particularly amongst adult learners. Another paradigm that many educators subscribe to is the concept of The Learning Pyramid or The Cone of Experience diagram.

Measuring student retention levels

Although there are a few educators and other experts in cognitive development that have critiqued the validity of the concept, it has been pervasive and widely-supported throughout contemporary pedagogical theory and educational studies, and it has continued to find popularity due to its success in demonstrating results with student involvement in active learning. Despite any minor controversy that the paradigm of The Learning Pyramid may have surrounding it, I believe that it still very much an important factor in student learning and information retention, particularly in regards to Gardner’s multiple intelligence involving the Bodily- Kin esthetic learner.

For those that are not familiar with The Learning Pyramid, it is a diagram that depicts the amount of new information retained by a student when learning new concepts — dependent upon the method of content delivery – expressed as a percentage of overall retention, with the lowest base-level of the pyramid illustrating the largest percentage and the smallest percentage marked at the tip. Lecturing course content to a class of learners is the least successful, with only 5% of new information being retained. The most successful method of content delivery is through the instruction of one person to another, or immediate use of newfound knowledge, is an impressive 90% retention rate. The second- most successful method of content-delivery is “practicing by doing,” which sits at a not-too-shabby rate of 75% retention. Although this is less than ideal, it is the most practical method of delivering content to your client via online courses, and therefore should be one of the most important methods used to develop teaching aids for your clients. As discussed in the previous article, a well thought-out course curriculum will be developed with a variety of teaching aids in mind, in order to satisfy the majority of learning needs of your client base to keep your course offerings effective and efficient.

However, knowing that 75% of content retention is activity-based, a deliberate effort should be made to ensure that your course content is delivered with teaching aids designed to have your clients perform an activity connected with introduced material. You can use this as a diagnostic assessment to determine your client’s initial level of familiarity with your course content, as a formative assessment while you progress through your course, or as a summative assessment to fully gauge how successful you were in delivering the content to your client once the course has been completed. Feedback is always useful!

Implementation into your Course.

However, even when keeping this in mind while designing your course curriculum, how do you implement this concept practically? Online courses may be seen as the antithesis of what it means to “learn by doing.” But much like the creative approach required to effectively use the concept of multiple intelligence with your students, an open mind with a flair for thinking outside-the-box is also needed to synthesize a “learning by doing” approach to online course development. In teaching the concept of editing and brevity of words to get a point across in English class, I have proposed the idea of using the limitations of Twitter to get students both doing and learning at the same time, all the while involving a practical application many people are already using themselves on their own time. Twitter only permits 140 characters per post, so students would be tasked with transcribing a pre-determined amount of text into a message that would satisfy the limits that Twitter imposes on user posts. The activity would require students to demonstrate content retention of lessons that cover editing techniques, which would include the importance of developing a strong vocabulary while avoiding overuse of the passive voice in one’s writing, and the assessment would actually involve an activity already used in students’ day-to-day lives.

When thinking of writing online, many would scoff at the idea of writing well and succinctly, yet an online application itself can be used as a useful teaching aid and assessment for formal, in-class student learning, provided that the instructor is willing to see opportunity where others may only see a roadblock. Be that opportunity for your learners, and see how far you can succeed!

Logic

All information entering the mind is screened by an analytical process that rejects, or at least questions, ideas that do not make sense. Use the following principles to prepare lessons logically.

•  Each point must make sense by itself.
• The “why” behind your point; learners want to know the reason behind your point.
• State your point then ask the learners to apply it to specific instances.

 

The points must come in a logical sequence. These can be:

• Whole to part; big picture first, then specific parts (NSSL data sheet first, then the tiers, then the columns, for example)
• Importance
• Time
• Geographic
• Magnitude
• Difficulty
• Order of performance

Immediate Application and Participation

This principle directs you to try out the skills or verbalize the facts required. In essence, have your learners do it now, there in the classroom.

 A good rule to follow is the more participation there is-the more learning has occurred. “People learn more effectively when they are actively involved in the learning process, not passively observing it.”

 However, participation for the sake participation sake can be a waste of time. Make sure there is a planned purpose for the activity.

 Many teachers believe that, in groups of 20 or more, participation is not practical. But limited participation is possible and beneficial. Limit it to small groups within the class. Then a spokesperson for the group presents their ideas. Thus, each learner is involved in the learning – testing understanding, getting feedback, and making adjustments – just as though he/she interacted directly with the presenter. In most cases, our SSD training courses will be conducted utilizing small groups. Some tips for small group instruction are listed later in the section “Practical Tips.”

Active participation includes:

1. Oral

·        Questions asked of the whole class

·        Assignments to groups of students to explain subpoints, etc.

1. Written

·        Working on group exercises

·        Individual tasks

·        “Pop” quizzes

·        Flip chart summaries

1. Group work

·        Group discussions

·        Small team exercises

·        Projects for later presentation

1. Physical

A.  Assembly of apparatus

B.  Hands-on use of assembled apparatus

C.  Performing an activity

Repetition

Studies show that as much as 65-75% of the material learned will be “forgotten” within a week. This is the reason that the world of advertising presents us with a steady barrage of commercials over and over again. There are two ways that repetition can be used effectively without being boring.

 

1. Repetition with a difference: Give the same information but vary your approach. An example would be using a film followed by a case study.

 

1. Refresher training: Cover the same material, but in less time and with less intensity. Each time, the learner will forget less and retain more and get closer to your desired learning level. This method has some application during the week of training but may be best applied over the following several weeks.

 

1. Interval training: Learners will retain only about 10% of what they learned after 30 days. However, if you provide the material at six intervals and increase the amount of time from each interval to the next one, they will retain 90% after 30 days.

·        1st time

·        2nd, an hour later

·        3rd, next day

·        4th, 1 week later

·        5th, 2 weeks later

·        6th, 30 days later

The Four-Step Process of Instruction

Step 1 – Prepare

1. Prepare yourself for helping them learn.

·        Have thorough familiarity with the subject.

·        Break down the components of the subject.

·        Design a training plan that:

o  Explains how, what, where, and why

o  Is clear as to what you expect of the students

o  Is clear as to how you are measuring the effectiveness of the training.

1. Prepare the employees for learning.

·        Put them at ease.

·        Give them the big picture.

·        Let them know what’s in it for them.

·        Gauge their reactions and respond accordingly.

Step 2 – Present

1. Tell them about the subject.
2. Show them the task.

·        Go through it several times and allow time for questions and discussion.

·        Avoid too many details.

·        Demonstrate how to perform the task.

·        Explain why it is done this way.

Step 3 – Let them try

A.  Have them tell you.

·        Describe the job and the steps involved.

·        Don’t move on until they have it down.

B.  Have them “show themselves.”

·        You follow the instructions as they give them to you.

C.  Have them explain.

D.  Let them try.

E.  Correct their mistakes.

·        Take one thing at a time.

·        Set a pattern for correction.

o  Establish what is wrong (try to get them to identify the problem).

o  Present right way again.

o  Let them try it again.

o  Fix the correction in their mind before moving on.

F.   Help them develop skill.

·        Observe and continue feedback.

Step 4 – Follow up

A.  Put them on their own.

B.  Encourage them to ask questions when they have them.

Some Hints to Stimulate Participation

Quoting from sources as examples:

 

·        “She says, ‘Yes. Say more about that,’ and nods her head and says, ‘Right, right, and how do you feel about that?’ I guess she just invites us to talk and then keeps us talking. More important, she listens to what we say and shows respect for our ideas as well as our feelings.”

 

·        “His sessions sound like a cross between an interview and a counseling session with a ‘shrink’ He doesn’t offer a single fact or opinion of his own. Instead, he gets us to talk about the subject by offering provocative comments, stories and questions. Finally, he summarizes what we’ve said.”

 

·        “She walks over to you and watches you intently while you are talking, at close range, as though just the two of you were having a conversation. She leans toward you while she nods and says ’yes’ or ‘right.’“

 ·        “He reaches toward us with his hand open and palm up. Sometimes he beckons with it as though asking us to keep talking. He signals to the one who’s talking and keeps the others from butting in.”

The wallflower and the motor mouth

The wallflower is a learner who resists participating. Whether this person is trained to be quiet or simply is a shy, introverted person, he/she is more likely to speak up when there is no threat of embarrassment. You as a presenter can reduce this threat in several ways:

• Before asking a question, watch the learner’s face to see if it registers a clear understanding of what is going on.
• Always ask questions with no “wrong” answers; after another learner has said something concise and accurate, ask the wallflower if she/he agrees.
• Always express approval of inputs, especially those of wallflowers.
• Utilize small group activities.
• Generate questions within small groups. Wallflowers may be more comfortable in a small group than in the larger group.
• Provide incentives for contributing to learning, especially within the small groups; make it possible for the peers in the group to reward the wallflower.

 

The motor mouth is a learner who over-participates, from simple aggressiveness and/or excessive enthusiasm. There is a risk of developing an adversarial relationship between the motor mouth and the presenter. Avoid ridicule as a presenter. Even though the other learners usually lose patience with the motor mouth before the presenter does, they will resent berating of any of their colleagues. You may try the following:

• Use body language, moving about the room so that you do not directly face him/her.
• At the same time, use some of the techniques intended to draw other learners out.
• If that does not work, try holding out your palm at him/her in the classic policeman’s “stop” signal when he/she tries to interrupt.
• Use incentives that may involve others and thus make it difficult for one person to dominate.
• Build a praise bridge to another participant: Offer praise by saying, “We appreciate your responses.” Then add, “Now, let’s hear from someone else.”

 Developing Effective Instructional Materials

An operational definition of a presentation is: The systematic discussion, explanation, or demonstration of skills, knowledge, or attitudes. To make an effective presentation, we should follow guidelines developed by the experts.

 In conjunction with the 10-step plan itemized below, there is the consideration of developing lesson plans. Lesson plans provide aids and guides to help somebody else step in and present your material if you are not available. They are also meant to help keep you focused on your own objectives, teaching aids, personal hints, etc. More on lesson plans can be found at:

Ten-Step Plan

The Planning Process:

Identify audience needs.

Identify the topic and the questions that will be asked.

Determine the level of knowledge needed and the sequence of your subtopics.

Write your objectives.

Prepare an outline to structure your content.

Add the details.

Choose the presentation method.

Rehearse.

*Attitudes

*Skills

*Knowledge

1. Identification of audience needs

• Can you find out what their expectations are?
• What is their familiarity with the subject?
• Cultural considerations; will humor work?
• Are they forced to be there, or is their attendance voluntary?

1. Identification of topic and the questions that will be asked

·        Do a “question census” to anticipate what they would like answered.

·        Brainstorm yourself, with peers, or with an audience.

1. Determine the level of knowledge needed and the sequence of the subtopics.

·        How deep into the subject matter should you go with this audience?

·        What sequencing will work best?

o  Importance

o  Time

o  Geographic

o  Magnitude

o  Difficulty

o  Whole to part

o  Part to whole

o  Order of performance

1. ·        Write your objectives.

·        Be S.M.A.R.T.

o  Specific

o  Measurable

o  Attainable

o  Result-oriented

o  Time-bound

1. Prepare an outline to structure your content.

·        Start with the opening.

o  Avoid starting with a joke.

o  Personal story okay

o  Involve learners with a question.

o  Use a rhetorical question, anecdote, startling statistic, object.           

o  State your objective(s).

·        Body

o  Your sequence of subtopics

·        Closing

o  Summarize.

o  Tie into opening.

o  Tell a related story.

o  Appeal to learners.

o  Conclude; make sure the learners know that you are done (thanks, goodbye).

1. Add the details.

·        Who, what, when, where, why, how

·        Present the most important details in the most interesting way.

1. Choose the presentation method.

·        Dependent; audience totally dependent on you

·        Independent; the learners do something, do not need you.

·        Interdependent; group activities

·        (See tips later on.)

1. Rehearse.

·        Important key; the learners really want you to do well and be successful.

·        We may be afraid for our own self-esteem as a result of:

o  Performing poorly

o  Audience reaction (questions we cannot answer, etc.)

o  Boring subject matter or poor preparation

·        Rehearsing. Do it!

1.  Delivery of presentation

·        Capture it on video so that you can evaluate yourself.

·        Focus on:

o  Overall presentation

o  Nonverbal communication; hand gestures, eye contact, quirks, movement

o  Verbal communication; tone of voice, enunciation, pace, volume, emphasis, variation

o  Design of presentation; did you accomplish your objectives, did it all fit together, did you have too much or too little time?

1.  Evaluation

·        Complete a self evaluation.

o  Things I did well

o  Things I need to improve

o  What did I learn?

·        Practical Tips

Tips for small group instruction

1. Give them a task.
2. The task should result in a product.
3. Give a time limit.
4. You set the groups, not them; can be done in a variety of ways.
5. Groups of four to six people
6. Clarify task for a floundering group.
7. Be sure someone has been designated as leader and someone else as recorder in each group. Rotate these tasks during the course.
8. Each leader presents product to the whole group.
9. Trainer adds knowledge to group reports.

Tips for effective lectures

1. Start by stating objectives.
2. Use good posture.
3. Avoid excessive “quirks.”
4. Look at the audience; face them and not the screen.
5. Use different gestures, body movements.
6. Vary the pitch of your voice. (Do not talk in a monotone; we get comments about that.)
7. Do not read to the group; reading shows that you are not prepared or do not have a good grasp of the subject.
8. Use examples, hypothetical situations, questions.
9. Use visual aids.
10.  Hold handouts until end if at all possible.

Tips for using a flip chart

1. Prepare how you will use it in advance.
2. If you prepare it prior to class, cover it until it is ready for use.
3. Print in block letters 2 to 3 inches high.
4. Do not fill page from top to bottom.
5. Write memory aids in light pencil on page corners.

·        Remember key words, items, lists, etc.

·        To key what to do next (go to PowerPoint slide, etc.)

1. Use black or blue markers; highlight with other colors (avoid green).
2. Have masking tape strips or pins ready if you are posting pages on a wall.
3. Stand next to and not in front of the flip chart while you are writing.
4. Leave blank pages between prepared pages to capture audience responses.
5. When you are done with the chart, cover or remove the sheet to return focus to you. The students may remain focused on the flip chart when they should focus on you.

Tips for handouts

1. If at all possible, put handouts in the course binder prior to the course session.
2. If that is not possible, distribute at the end of the presentation so the students pay attention to you and not the handout (unless the handout is needed during the presentation).
3. Distribute handouts out during the presentation, at the time they are needed. Preferably, the handouts should be distributed by an assistant.
4. Spell check the handout!
5. Make more copies than you think you will need; do not come up short!

Tips for Microsoft PowerPoint presentations

1. Add learning points not covered within the slide to the Notes section for each slide. Any major points that you will verbalize should be captured for their future reference.
2. Be aware of the size of the file you may create, especially when using pictures and graphs from other programs. There are instructions for embedding versus copying and pasting and for sizing in general. Go to this Microsoft help site for these instructions. Then, you can open the “Picture” toolbar in PowerPoint and use the compress picture option.
3. Use color backgrounds or slide design templates; avoid clear, colorless backgrounds (which are boring!). Note that some light colors will be “eaten up” by the projection equipment and will appear white.
4. Use animations and slide transitions appropriately. However, do not go overboard and thus distract from your material.
5. Make sure “text” colors contrast with background used.
6. Prepare a script/outline to help keep you from reading the slides (a lesson plan?).
7. PowerPoint has a way of adding a hyperlink to a slide that allows you to jump to another program, such as an Excel spreadsheet, that you want to refer to during your presentation. In PowerPoint, go to Help! and ask for “Create a hyperlink.”
8. Use the remote to allow you to move around the room.
9. Do move around, but do not stand and block anyone’s view of the screen for very long if at all.
10. Talk to the learners, not to the screen; have your shoulders square to the audience to help you do this.

• You could have the laptop running your session open and within your view to help you face your audience and not the screen.

Practice, practice, practice!

Learning Pyramid

Choosing instructional strategies that work will increase retention and make our training courses worth the time, effort, and expense of attending.

The Learning Pyramid. ... The Learning Pyramid, researched and created by the National training Laboratories in Betel, Maine, illustrates the percentage of learner recall that is associated with various approaches. The first four levels (lecture, reading, audio visual and demonstration) are passive learning methods.

   Instructional Strategy

Average Retention Rate

Lecture

5%

Reading

10%

Audio-Visual

20%

Demonstration

30%

Discussion Group

50%

Practice by Doing

75%

Immediate Use of Learning

90%

The ‘learning pyramid’ claims that some modalities of instruction can enhance retention over others. Typically, listening and reading are rated as poor methods for instruction whereas practical activities are rated high. The learning pyramid appears to be a misappropriated version of Dale’s ‘Cone of experience’ which proposed that audio-visual media existed on a continuum from more concrete to more abstract forms. However, the percentages given in the pyramid have no scientific basis. Evidence suggests that teachers should select the modality of instruction based on the requirements of the content as all of the techniques listed can be effective.

 Developing Your Lesson Plan

Lesson plans:

·        Help you plan and script your delivery

·        Saves plan of delivery for your use the next time

·        Can pass on plan of delivery to temporary or permanent replacement

·        Provides consistency when more than one person is delivering the lesson

 The analysis phase should have answered these questions:

• Is there a problem worth solving?
• Is instruction a relevant part of the solution?
• If so, what should the instruction accomplish?

 

A course description tells us something about the content and procedure of the course. An objective is a description of a performance you want learners to be able to exhibit before you consider them competent. An objective describes an intended result of instruction, rather than the process of instruction itself. At a minimum, the statement will include the performance result. In addition, in order to clarify the result if needed, we may add conditions and/or criteria to the objective.

 There are three main reasons for explicit objectives.

1.  When clearly defined objectives are developed, there is a sound basis for the selection or designing of instructional materials, contents, or methods.
2. We will be able to measure whether the objective has, in fact, been accomplished.
3. Students will have a means of organizing their own efforts toward accomplishment of the objectives.

 In short, if we know where we are going, we have a better chance of getting there. Again, the characteristics of a useful objective are:

 1.   Performance (what the learner is to be able to do)

2.   Conditions (important conditions under which the performance is expected to occur)

3.   Criteria (the quality or level of performance that will be considered acceptable)

 Performance is described by a doing word. 

 An example of an objective statement with performance only:

                       At the end of this session, the learner will be able to construct a digital map.

 Is that clear to you? Would everyone seeing that objective reach the same conclusion? Sometimes, as you can see, stating a performance only may not be enough. That is when we want to add conditions and/or criteria. Let’s add a condition.

   This is somewhat clearer, and maybe it is enough. At least, we now know that the learner should be able to complete a map with the condition that ArcGIS 9.0 editing tools will be used. We could, however, go a step further and add criteria. An example:

                       At the end of this session, given the editing tools , the learner will be able to construct a digital map of an approximately 5,000-acre designated project area. Work will meet the standards and pass a quality-control review by a GIS specialist.

 Now, we have criteria applied as well as the condition. The objective now states that there is a project area of a designated size and that the work must meet standards and pass review.

 Just a little food for thought as we prepare to do this task. Writing and editing learning objectives will be a task for all instructors. The following Performance Objective Worksheet will to assist you.

Performance Objectives Worksheet

Beginning with an appropriate verb, describe what a learner will be able to do after training using the components described here.

  Performance Objectives

At the end of this training, learners will be able to …

Task/Topic

Performance

Criterion

Condition

Begin with a verb.

Answer this: What will the learner know or do?

Describe how well the learner should know or be able to do the performance.

Begin with “given” or “when” and describe the condition that must exist for the learner to perform.

The Seven Laws of Learning (Robert W. Pike)

1. The Law of the Teacher: “Do you, as the instructor, have personal experience in applying what you are about to teach?”
2. The Law of the Learner: “Throughout your presentation, do you constantly emphasize for the participants the answer to ‘What’s in it for me?’”
3. The Law of the Language: “Do you always speak so that the participants can understand?”
4. The Law of the Lesson: “Are you willing to go from the known to the unknown? Do you start from where they are; establish a base line that they can build from?”
5. The Law of the Teaching Process: “Do you get people involved?”
6. The Law of the Learning Process: “Learning does not take place until behavior is changed. It is not simply a matter of showing that you can do it but of demonstrating to them that they can do it.”
7. The Law of Review and Application: “Do you show people how to apply it in real life?”

The 22 Deadly Sins (Robert W. Pike)

1. Appearing Unprepared: This does not mean that you are actually unprepared, which you must be, but it does mean appearing that you seem to be unprepared. Not knowing what comes next is an example.
2. Starting Late: Always start on time. Reward those who are on time and penalize those who are late.
3. Handling Questions Improperly: Putting them off (I’ll answer that later); giving them impression that it is a dumb question, etc.
4. Apologizing for Yourself or the Organization: In all likelihood, most of your participants won’t notice the problem. Don’t apologize, just keep moving on.
5. Being Unfamiliar with Knowable Information: Know the obvious such as agency names, key people in attendance, etc.
6. Using Audio Visuals Unprofessionally: Not knowing how to operate the projection system is an example. Become familiar with it before your presentation, not during it.
7. Seeming to be Off Schedule: In order to not appear off schedule, tell participants where you’re going and how long it’s going to take to get there.
8. Not Involving the Participants: Enough said.
9. Not Establishing Personal Rapport: Make eye contact; be available at breaks, etc.
10. Ending Late: This is worse than starting late. They will not be pleased if you run over your scheduled time.
11. Appearing Disorganized: Cover objectives, have an introduction, summarize.
12. Not Quickly Establishing a Positive Image: Quickly take command, let them know that you know who you are, where you are, and where you are going with your presentation. Appearance is important.
13. Not Covering the Objectives Promised: “Promise much, deliver more.” Make sure you deliver what you promised.
14. Not Scheduling Enough Breaks: 10 minutes for every 60-90 minutes in the classroom.
15. Practicing Bad Habits: Get rid of distracting habits and mannerisms such as jingling change in your pockets, using “um” or other non-words during pauses.
16. Not Checking the Environment: Responsibility of your coordinator.
17. Not Updating Material: Be current.
18. Not Admitting Mistakes: Admit it when you don’t know an answer or make a mistake.
19. Using Inappropriate Language: Tasteless words or phrases can taint a presentation. Don’t offend even one participant.
20. Using Inappropriate Humor: Best to avoid humor that relates to origin, sex, politics, or religion.
21. Coming on as an Expert, a Know-It-All: We can demonstrate our expertise with being superior.
22. Using Poor Grammar, Pronunciation, and Enunciation: Work on your delivery skills.

The first four (lecture, reading, audio visual and demonstration) are passive learning methods. In contrast, the bottom three (discussion group, practice by doing and teach others are participatory (active) learning methods. Arguably, the difference in retention between passive and participatory (active) methods is due to the extent of reflection and deep cognitive processing.

The pyramid of learning

The pyramid of learning frequently appears as a graphical representation and tends to be presented uncritically in teacher training and professional development sessions. It comes in a variety of forms. The principle suggestion is that more ‘passive’ forms of learning (e.g. listening to a lecture or reading) lead to drastically lower retention in memory than more ‘active’ forms of learning (e.g. doing for oneself or teaching another person). The origin of this claim appears to have its roots in Dale’s ‘Cone of Experience’. Dale attempted to classify various types of learning experience in a progression from the most abstract (at the top of the cone) to the most concrete (at the bottom). This original scheme did not present any numbers or percentages. Indeed, Dale’s claims about this classification system were cautious and he insisted that the order should not be seen as a hierarchy or indicate a value judgement regarding the relative merits of each instructional strategy (Molenda, 2003).

Is the learning pyramid helpful?

There is considerable variation in the numbers used in the learning pyramid where it crops up in education. However, whilst there might be an intuitive appeal to the order or the percentages given, the learning pyramid lacks scientific credibility. Willingham (2013) makes the point that there are simply so many variables that affect memory retrieval (e.g. the nature of the content, the age of the individual, the delay between learning and retrieval, etc.) that there is simply no validity to assigning percentage retention scores for any of the modes in the pyramid.

A review by Lalley and Miller (2007) evaluated the learning pyramid as a guide to student retention. They found no credible research supporting the pyramid and in their review of memory research found that all of the instructional methods identified resulted in retention. None of the methods produced consistently superior retention than any of the others and all were effective depending on the context of the learning and the material being learnt. They point out that as well as being inaccurate, the pyramid of learning is a potentially harmful influence on teaching. “A paramount concern, given conventional wisdom and the research cited, is the effectiveness and importance of reading and direct instruction, which in many ways are undermined by their positions on the pyramid. Reading is not only an effective teaching/learning method, it is also the main foundation for becoming a ‘life-long learner’.” The pyramid of learning has no credible scientific basis and makes a number of demonstrably false assertions regarding the effectiveness of different methods of teaching. Teachers should exercise professional judgement based on the context and demands of the learning material and select from the full range of instructional methods available to them.