Language Is Culture ? 2020 VOL.1ISBN 978-976-96512-1-0
Dr. William Anderson Gittens D.D.
CEO & Managing Director, Author -Devgro Media Arts Services Publishing?2015
Language Is?Culture ? 2020 VOL.1ISBN 978-976-96512-1-0
William Anderson Gittens
Author, Cinematographer Dip.Com., Arts. B.A. Media Arts Specialists’ License Cultural?Practitioner, Publisher,?Doctoral Student?of Divinity, D.D. CEO,Editor in Chief of Devgro Media Arts Services Publishing?2015
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Language and culture are intertwined.?
Just as music is a bridge that spans the gap between cultures and languages; a means of finding compatibility within a society, a link with other societies; the common human denominator and all cultures have it and share it. Likewise language is culture and culture is language is not only a theoretical expression but?is often mentioned when language and culture are discussed.
The origin of language and its evolutionary emergence in the human species have been subjects of speculation for several centuries. The topic is difficult to study because of the lack of direct evidence. Consequently, scholars wishing to study the origins of language must draw inferences from other kinds of evidence such as the fossil record, archaeological evidence, contemporary language diversity, studies of language acquisition and comparisons between human language and systems of communication existing among animals (particularly other primates). Many argue that the origins of language probably relate closely to the origins of modern human behaviour, but there is little agreement about the implications and directionality of this connection.?
This shortage of empirical evidence has caused many scholars to regard the entire topic as unsuitable for serious study. In 1866, the Linguistic Society of Paris banned any existing or future debates on the subject, a prohibition which remained influential across much of the Western world until late in the twentieth century.Today, there are various hypotheses about how, why, when, and where language might have emerged.Despite this, there is scarcely more agreement today than a hundred years ago, when Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection provoked a rash of armchair speculation on the topic. Since the early 1990s, however, a number of linguists, archaeologists, psychologists, anthropologists, and others have attempted to address with new methods what some consider one of the hardest problems in science.
The humanistic tradition considers language as a human invention. Renaissance philosopher Antoine Arnauld gave a detailed description of his idea of the origin of language in Port-Royal Grammar. According to Arnauld, people are social and rational by nature, and this urged them to create language as a means to communicate their ideas to others. Language construction would have occurred through a slow and gradual process.In later theory, especially in functional linguistics, the primacy of communication is emphasised over psychological needs.?
The exact way language evolved is however not considered as vital to the study of languages. Structural linguist Ferdinand de Saussure abandoned evolutionary linguistics after having come to the firm conclusion that it would not be able to provide any further revolutionary insight after the completion of the major works in historical linguistics by the end of the 19th century. Saussure was particularly sceptical of the attempts of August Schleicher and other Darwinian linguists to access prehistorical languages through series of reconstructions of proto-languages.?
Evolutionary research had many other critics, too. The Paris linguistic society famously banned the topic of language evolution in 1866 because it was considered as lacking scientific proof. Around the same time, Max Müller ridiculed popular accounts to explain language origin. In his classifications, the 'bow-wow theory' is the type of explanation that considers languages as having evolved as an imitation of natural sounds. The 'pooh-pooh theory' holds that speech originated from spontaneous human cries and exclamations; the 'yo-he-ho theory' suggests that language developed from grunts and gasps evoked by physical exertion; while the 'sing-song theory' claims that speech arose from primitive ritual chants.?
Saussure's solution to the problem of language evolution involves dividing theoretical linguistics in two. Evolutionary and historical linguistics are renamed as diachronic linguistics. It is the study of language change, but it has only limited explanatory power due to the inadequacy of all of the reliable research material that could ever be made available. Synchronic linguistics, in contrast, aims to widen scientists' understanding of language through a study of a given contemporary or historical language stage as a system in its own right.?
Although Saussure paid much focus to diachronic linguistics, later structuralists who equated structuralism with the synchronic analysis were sometimes criticised of ahistoricism. According to structural anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss, language and meaning – in opposition to "knowledge, which develops slowly and progressively" – must have appeared in an instant.
Structuralism, as first introduced to sociology by émile Durkheim, is nonetheless a type of humanistic evolutionary theory which explains diversification as necessitated by growing complexity. There was a shift of focus to functional explanation after Saussure's death. Functional structuralists including the Prague Circle linguists and André Martinet explained the growth and maintenance of structures as being necessitated by their functions. For example, novel technologies make it necessary for people to invent new words, but these may lose their function and fall into oblivion as the technologies are eventually replaced by more modern ones.?
According to Chomsky's single mutation theory, the emergence of language resembled the formation of a crystal; with digital infinity as the seed crystal in a super-saturated primate brain, on the verge of blossoming into the human mind, by physical law, once evolution added a single small but crucial keystone. Thus, in this theory, language appeared rather suddenly within the history of human evolution. Chomsky, writing with computational linguist and computer scientist Robert C. Berwick, suggests that this scenario is completely compatible with modern biology. They note "none of the recent accounts of human language evolution seem to have completely grasped the shift from conventional Darwinism to its fully stochastic modern version—specifically, that there are stochastic effects not only due to sampling like directionless drift, but also due to directed stochastic variation in fitness, migration, and heritability—indeed, all the "forces" that affect individual or gene frequencies.... All this can affect evolutionary outcomes—outcomes that as far as we can make out are not brought out in recent books on the evolution of language, yet would arise immediately in the case of any new genetic or individual innovation, precisely the kind of scenario likely to be in play when talking about language's emergence."?
Citing evolutionary geneticist Svante P??bo they concur that a substantial difference must have occurred to differentiate Homo sapiens from Neanderthals to "prompt the relentless spread of our species who had never crossed open water up and out of Africa and then on across the entire planet in just a few tens of thousands of years. ... What we do not see is any kind of "gradualism" in new tool technologies or innovations like fire, shelters, or figurative art." Berwick and Chomsky therefore suggest language emerged approximately between 200,000 years ago and 60,000 years ago (between the arrival of the first anatomically modern humans in southern Africa, and the last exodus from Africa, respectively). "That leaves us with about 130,000 years, or approximately 5,000–6,000 generations of time for evolutionary change. This is not 'overnight in one generation' as some have (incorrectly) inferred—but neither is it on the scale of geological eons. It's time enough—within the ballpark for what Nilsson and Pelger (1994) estimated as the time required for the full evolution of a vertebrate eye from a single cell, even without the invocation of any 'evo-devo' effects."?
See also: Recursion § In language, and Prefrontal Synthesis
The Romulus and Remus hypothesis, proposed by neuroscientist Andrey Vyshedskiy, seeks to address the question as to why the modern speech apparatus originated over 500,000 years before the earliest signs of modern human imagination. This hypothesis proposes that there were two phases that led to modern recursive language. (In linguistics, recursion is the ability to repeat a rule indefinitely. For example, a simple sentence in English may have the form: Noun Verb, as in "I walked." Recursion means you can repeat that rule: "I walked. I ran. I played" or "I walked but I did not run because I had played too strenuously.")?
The first phase includes the slow development of non-recursive language with a large vocabulary along with the modern speech apparatus, which includes changes to the hyoid bone, increased voluntary control of the muscles of the diaphragm, the evolution of the FOXP2 gene, as well as other changes by 600,000 years ago.[80] Then, the second phase was a rapid Chomskian Single Step, consisting of three distinct events that happened in quick succession around 70,000 years ago and allowed for the shift from non-recursive to recursive language in early hominins.?
1.A genetic mutation that slowed down the Prefrontal Synthesis (PFS) critical period of at least two children that lived together;
2.This allowed these children to create recursive elements of language such as spatial prepositions;
3.Then this merged with their parent's non-recursive language to create recursive language.
It is not enough for children to have a modern Prefrontal Cortex (PFC) to allow for the development of PFS, the children must also be mentally stimulated and have recursive elements already in their language to acquire PFS. Since, their parents would not have invented these elements yet, the children would have had to do it themselves, which is a common occurrence among young children that live together, in a process called cryptophasia.This means that delayed PFC development would have allowed for more time to acquire PFS, and develop recursive elements.?
Of course, delayed PFC development comes with downsides, such as a longer period of reliance on one's parents to survive, and lower survival rates. For modern language to have occurred, PFC delay had to have an immense survival benefit in later life, such as PFS ability. This suggests that the mutation that caused PFC delay and the development of recursive language and PFS occurred simultaneously, which lines up with evidence of a genetic bottleneck around 70,000 years ago. This could have been the result of a few individuals who developed PFS and recursive language which gave them significant competitive advantage over all other humans at the time.?
The gestural theory states that human language developed from gestures that were used for simple communication.?
Two types of evidence support this theory.?
1.Gestural language and vocal language depend on similar neural systems. The regions on the cortex that are responsible for mouth and hand movements border each other.
2.Nonhuman primates can use gestures or symbols for at least primitive communication, and some of their gestures resemble those of humans, such as the "begging posture", with the hands stretched out, which humans share with chimpanzees.
Research has found strong support for the idea that verbal language and sign language depend on similar neural structures. Patients who used sign language, and who suffered from a left-hemisphere lesion, showed the same disorders with their sign language as vocal patients did with their oral language. Other researchers found that the same left-hemisphere brain regions were active during sign language as during the use of vocal or written language.?
Primate gesture is at least partially genetic: different nonhuman apes will perform gestures characteristic of their species, even if they have never seen another ape perform that gesture. For example, gorillas beat their breasts. This shows that gestures are an intrinsic and important part of primate communication, which supports the idea that language evolved from gesture.?
Further evidence suggests that gesture and language are linked. In humans, manually gesturing has an effect on concurrent vocalizations, thus creating certain natural vocal associations of manual efforts. Chimpanzees move their mouths when performing fine motor tasks. These mechanisms may have played an evolutionary role in enabling the development of intentional vocal communication as a supplement to gestural communication. Voice modulation could have been prompted by preexisting manual actions.?
There is also the fact that, from infancy, gestures both supplement and predict speech.This addresses the idea that gestures quickly change in humans from a sole means of communication (from a very young age) to a supplemental and predictive behavior that we use despite being able to communicate verbally. This too serves as a parallel to the idea that gestures developed first and language subsequently built upon it. Two possible scenarios have been proposed for the development of language,one of which supports the gestural theory:?
1.Language developed from the calls of our ancestors.
2.Language was derived from gesture.
The first perspective that language evolved from the calls of our ancestors seems logical because both humans and animals make sounds or cries. One evolutionary reason to refute this is that, anatomically, the center that controls calls in monkeys and other animals is located in a completely different part of the brain than in humans. In monkeys, this center is located in the depths of the brain related to emotions. In the human system, it is located in an area unrelated to emotion. Humans can communicate simply to communicate—without emotions. So, anatomically, this scenario does not work.[90] Therefore, we resort to the idea that language was derived from gesture (we communicated by gesture first and sound was attached later).?
A composite hypothesis holds that early language took the form of part gestural and part vocal mimesis (imitative 'song-and-dance'), combining modalities because all signals (like those of nonhuman apes and monkeys) still needed to be costly in order to be intrinsically convincing. In that event, each multi-media display would have needed not just to disambiguate an intended meaning but also to inspire confidence in the signal's reliability. The suggestion is that only once community-wide contractual understandings had come into force could trust in communicative intentions be automatically assumed, at last allowing Homo sapiens to shift to a more efficient default format. Since vocal distinctive features (sound contrasts) are ideal for this purpose, it was only at this point—when intrinsically persuasive body-language was no longer required to convey each message—that the decisive shift from manual gesture to our current primary reliance on spoken language occurred
Proponents of the motor theory of language evolution have primarily focused on the visual domain and communication through observation of movements. The Tool-use sound hypothesis suggests that the production and perception of sound also contributed substantially, particularly incidental sound of locomotion (ISOL) and tool-use sound (TUS). Human bipedalism resulted in rhythmic and more predictable ISOL. That may have stimulated the evolution of musical abilities, auditory working memory, and abilities to produce complex vocalizations, and to mimic natural soundsSince the human brain proficiently extracts information about objects and events from the sounds they produce, TUS, and mimicry of TUS, might have achieved an iconic function. The prevalence of sound symbolism in many extant languages supports this idea. Self-produced TUS activates multimodal brain processing (motor neurons, hearing, proprioception, touch, vision), and TUS stimulates primate audiovisual mirror neurons, which is likely to stimulate the development of association chains. Tool use and auditory gestures involve motor-processing of the forelimbs, which is associated with the evolution of vertebrate vocal communication. The production, perception, and mimicry of TUS may have resulted in a limited number of vocalizations or protowords that were associated with tool use. A new way to communicate about tools, especially when out of sight, would have had selective advantage. A gradual change in acoustic properties and/or meaning could have resulted in arbitrariness and an expanded repertoire of words. Humans have been increasingly exposed to TUS over millions of years, coinciding with the period during which spoken language evolved.?
In humans, functional MRI studies have reported finding areas homologous to the monkey mirror neuron system in the inferior frontal cortex, close to Broca's area, one of the language regions of the brain. This has led to suggestions that human language evolved from a gesture performance/understanding system implemented in mirror neurons. Mirror neurons have been said to have the potential to provide a mechanism for action-understanding, imitation-learning, and the simulation of other people's behaviorThis hypothesis is supported by some cytoarchitectonic homologies between monkey premotor area F5 and human Broca's area.?
Rates of vocabulary expansion link to the ability of children to vocally mirror non-words and so to acquire the new word pronunciations. Such speech repetition occurs automatically, quickly and separately in the brain to speech perception. Moreover, such vocal imitation can occur without comprehension such as in speech shadowing and echolalia. Further evidence for this link comes from a recent study in which the brain activity of two participants was measured using fMRI while they were gesturing words to each other using hand gestures with a game of charades—a modality that some have suggested might represent the evolutionary precursor of human language. Analysis of the data using Granger Causality revealed that the mirror-neuron system of the observer indeed reflects the pattern of activity of in the motor system of the sender, supporting the idea that the motor concept associated with the words is indeed transmitted from one brain to another using the mirror system.
Not all linguists agree with the above arguments, however. In particular, supporters of Noam Chomsky argue against the possibility that the mirror neuron system can play any role in the hierarchical recursive structures essential to syntax.
Language is a cultural resource because it is one of the mechanisms by which cultural and social relationships are represented. This is best understood from the perspective that explains how language is a cultural process pivotal in social interaction.?
The origins of language
The Divine Source. In most religions, it is believed that language is a God-given gift to human species.?
The Natural Sound Source.
The Oral-Gesture Source. People use some nonverbal communication when they speak. ...?
Glossogenetics.?
Physiological Adaptation.
Understanding culture allows you to give the right meaning to each word, in the larger context, because you'll be able to think in the foreign language. ... By understanding cultural differences while learning a language, you'll find new ways to express these things. Culture is essential when studying languages. For example when studying languages, you need motivation to progress with verbs, tenses, the use of adverbs, phrasal verbs, and so on. Add to that hundreds of new words, maybe even new letters, and you’ll find yourself ready to quit after the first three lessons!?
When you can place all this new information in a cultural context, it can help you engage at a different level with the foreign language. Learning about how native people live and talk introduces a human side to the language, which keeps you hooked on the learning process.?
To understand culture, you need to go further than textbooks and dictionaries. You can use a wide range of alternative resources to get relevant information about the locals:
Movies – Spanish speaking students who watched English movies improved their listening and speaking skills faster than their colleagues. Watching subtitled movies or TV programs instead of dubbed ones can give you an accurate image about how native people speak. You’ll get to notice particular expressions, accents and tones of voice that will help you understand more about the cultural environment of the language you’re studying.
Newspapers and magazines – There’s a significant difference between what you learn at school and what you find in magazines. This happens because columns stay in line with how people actually speak to each other in everyday life. They respect all grammar rules, but keep a natural voice at the same time.?
Blogs – They have the advantage of connecting you with the local vocabulary. Depending on the niche, you can even improve terminology and learn some items you’ll only find in the ‘urban’ dictionary.?
Original literature – Reading original versions of novels is both a reason and a method for learning a language. You get to see how the author has built phrases and what new meaning he or she gives to various words.?
Traveling – It remains the most important resource when looking to improve your language skills. You’ll not only listen to how natives speak, but you’ll get to communicate with them as well. Traveling is the most efficient way of learning a language because it gives you less alternatives. You either learn to say it right, or you risk to creating chaos and potentially embarrassing situations!
Kristin Savage believes that various dialects have also developed because of the influences certain cultures had on others. One of the oldest examples of this can be that of Ancient Greece and Rome. When the Romans captured Greece, they were greatly influenced by Greek culture, language, and most importantly — religion. The Romans had adopted the Greek pantheon of gods and with this some of their culture. Another example is that of France and England when the Englishmen started speaking French and the English language (which was then much more similar to German) adopted a huge part of vocabulary from French. Nowadays, English has approximately 30% of words originating from French.
Overall should languages disappear, invariably cultures die. Consequently, in this context the world becomes inherently a less interesting place, but we also sacrifice raw knowledge and the intellectual achievements of millennia a view espoused by Ken Hale, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, quoted in Davis, W. 1999. The fact that this intellectual conversation Language Is Culture imputes that the said language allows us to express our thoughts and feelings is a signifier was framed?in ISBN978-976-96512-1-0
William Anderson Gittens
Author, Cinematographer Dip.Com., Arts. B.A. Media Arts Specialists’ License Cultural?Practitioner, Publisher,?Doctoral Student?of Divinity, D.D. CEO,Editor in Chief of Devgro Media Arts Services Publishing?2015
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