Jammu and Kashmir: UNITY in DIVERSITY [Dr Satish Ganjoo]

The State of Jammu and Kashmir came into being as a single political and geographical entity following the Treaty of Amritsar between the British and Maharaja Gulab Singh signed on March 16, 1846, which handed over the control of Kashmir to the Dogra ruler of Jammu who had earlier annexed Ladakh. The State consist of three divisions of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh. Each region is rich in art, archaeology, culture and history. It covers an area of 2,22,236 sq kms; which includes 78,114 sq kms under illegal occupation of Pakistan, 5,180 kms handed over by Pakistan to China and 37,555 sq kms under illegal possession of China. Jammu region consist of ten districts of Jammu, Udhampur, Doda, Kathua, Kishtwar, Ramban, Reasi, Samba, Rajouri and Poonch. Kashmir region include the ten districts of Srinagar, Budgam, Anantnag, Bandipora, Ganderbal, Kulgam, Shopian, Pulwama, Baramulla and Kupwara. Leh and Kargil are two districts of Ladakh Division. Each regions of State namely Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh, have its own unique traditions and customs. Kashmir is mainly inhabited by Muslims, Jammu by the Hindus and Ladakh region by the Buddhists.

Jammu division lies between the outer hill region boundering the Valley of Kashmir in the south and the hilly tract extending to the plains of the Punjab. Its history is as old as the mythological account of the Mahabharata and finds a place in this ancient scripture. Raj Darshani and Gulabnama, two principal chronicles, hold that the kingdom of Jammu was established by Raja Jambu Lochan some 3000 years ago. The reference of some rulers of Jammu is also found in Rajatarangini of Kalhana, Ain-i-Akbari and Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri.

The people of Jammu descended from Aryans and speak the Dogri language which is a mixture of Sanskrit, Punjabi and Persian. The origin of this language goes back to the Indo-Aryan branch of Sanskrit. Dogri folk literature is highly interesting and reflective of the inherent virtues, ancestral glory and sense of pride. Poetry has developed rapidly in recent years. Hardutt Shastri restructured the language and revolutionized the trends in Dogri poetry.

Besides being conspicuous for valour and sacrificial spirit, Dogras, as the people of Jammu are called, have made tremendous contribution in painting and architecture. Early in the 18th century, Basohli emerged as one of the greatest centres of painting. Dr Herman Goetz described Basohli paintings remarkable in blend of line and colour. Temple architecture is another prominent feature of Jammu, also called the city of temples. Maharaja Gulab Singh and his successors built innumerable temples and dharamshalas in the region. The magnificent cluster of the Raghunath temples, built by Maharaja Ranbir Singh, remains the best tribute to art and architecture. Dr Stein also bear testimony to his inherited religious traditions and enlightened interest in Indian learning.

The Dogra culture is much similar to that of neighbouring Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. Traditional Punjabi festivals such as Lohri and Baisakhi are celebrated with great zeal and enthusiasm throughout the region. After Dogras, Gujjars form the second-largest ethnic group in Jammu. Known for their semi-nomadic lifestyle, Gujjars are also found in large numbers in the Kashmir valley. Similar to Gujjars, Gaddis are primarily herdsmen who hail from the Chamba region in Himachal Pradesh. Gaddis are generally associated with emotive music played on the flute. The Bakkarwalas found both in Jammu and the outskirts of the Vale of Kashmir are nomadic pastoral people who move along the Himalayan slopes in search for pastures for their huge flocks of goats and sheep.

The fascinating Valley of Kashmir, lying at an average altitude of 5200 feet above the mean sea level, is approximately eighty-four miles in length and about twenty-five miles in breadth. The geological evidences confirm the concept that Kashmir Valley was a vast mountain lake, called Satisar. The existing remnants of this vast dead-water lake are the beautiful water bodies of Wular, Dal, Anchar, Hokarsar, Khushalsar and others. However, some scholars believe that Kashmir was called so on account of the early settlement of a semetic tribe called Kash, who also founded the cities of Kash, Kashan and Kashghar. But this theory is yet to be substantiated by indisputable evidences. It is commonly believed that the present inhabitants of Kashmir are the descendants of the Aryan race, who immigrated from the south. In proto-historic times, the probable semitic tribes of Kashmir - Nagas, Pisacas and Yaksas; used to go to Tibet and Central Asia in summer and return to the Valley in winter. This reveals the close ties which existed between Kashmir and Central Asia from very ancient times. In fact the Central Asian landscape begins from Kashmir the immediate neighbours of Kashmir in Central Asia - Ladakh, Baltistan and Dardistan; were integral parts of Kashmir Mandala during all periods of history down to the year 1947. The Valley is connected with the outer world by no fewer than eight mountain-passes.

Kashmir had a strong tradition of historical writing from very early times. This was because of the persistence of Buddhism in the Valley and Kashmir’s historical ties with a number of non-Indian cultures - the Greek, the Chinese and the Central Asian, all of which had strong historical traditions. With the establishment of Sultanate in Kashmir in 1320, many learned men from Persia and Turkistan began to penetrate into the Valley. They brought with them the Persian and Central Asian traditions of historiography. Ksemendra and Bilhana were eminent scholars who contributed to literature tremendously. Kalhana’s Rajtarangini written in the pre-Muslim period in Kashmir, is a long narrative of occurrences taking place in the Valley from the earliest times to 1150 A.D. It is unique as the only attempt at true history in the whole of surviving Sanskrit literature. Two hundred years later, Jonaraja continued the narration down to the reign of Sultan Zainul Abidin and called it, like Kalhana, Rajtarangini (Rajavali). After the death of Jonaraja in 1459, his pupil Srivara continued the history of Kashmir, called it Jaina-Rajtarangini and brought it down from 1459 to 1486 A.D. When Srivara died, Prajyabhatta composed his Rajavalipataka, which covered the period from 1486 to 1512 A.D. But being defective in topography and chronology, Prajyabhatta’s work is of very little importance. Suka Pandit, a pupil of Prajyabhatta, wrote Rajtarangini after the name of Kalhana’s work, dealing with the history of the period from 1517 to 1596 A.D. The chain of these scholars and historians have made great contribution to the language and literature.

Emergence of Islam in Kashmir was accidental. Rinchana- a refugee from Tibet, occupied the throne with the help of some chiefs in AD 1320. A Buddhist, Rinchana, wanted to get initiated into the Brahmanical fold to strengthen his political position. At that time, Shaivism was the most extensively practised religion in the Valley. But Brahmans were not ready to share their privileges with an outsider. Thus deflected, Rinchana wanted to establish a uniform faith of warring sects and creeds in Kashmir with himself as its head. But Shahmir and Bulbul Shah manipulated his conversion to Islam. This laid the foundation of Muslim rule in Kashmir. In AD 1339, Shahmir ascended the throne of Kashmir under the name of Sultan Shamas-ud-Din (The Light of the Religion - Islam). He got khutaba read and the coins struck to his name. Islam became the court religion. Shahmir became the legitimate author and architect of Muslim rule in Kashmir. With the establishment of the new regime Muslim missionaries, preachers, sayyids and saints penetrated into the Valley. Sayyid Jalal-ud-Din, Sayyid Taj-ud-Din, Sayyid Hussain Simnani, Sayyid Masud and Sayyid Yusuf came to Kashmir to avoid the intended massacre by Timur. Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani (Shah Hamadan) entered Kashmir with 700 sayyids; and, his son, Mir Muhammad Hamadani, with 300 more. They endured in the Valley under royal protection and disseminated the message of Islam.

After Shah Mirs, Kashmir was ruled by Chaks, Mughals and Afghans who believed in religious prosecution of Hindus causing their conversation to Islam, death or exile resulting in six mass migrations from the Valley of Kashmir. Islam gradually diluted the Hindu population and influenced every sphere of its society. The seventh and final forced migration of Kashmiri Hindus was in 1989-90 due to Pakistan-sposored terrorism and separatism.

Ladakh is a mountainous part of the State lying in its north. Though administratively part of the Kashmir Division, it is a distinct cultural and geographical entity. On the west of it is Baltistan and its east is Tibet. It is the land of extreme weather – intense heat and piercing cold. The height of Ladakh mountain ranges between 17,000 to 21,000 feet above sea level and many peaks rise to about 25,000 feet in altitude. The people of Ladakh region are mixture of Mongolian and Aryan races having dominant Mongoloid features. Lamaism, Mahayana Buddhism supplanted with indigenous cults and beliefs, is the dominant religion of the region. Ladakh is the repository of ancient cultural heritage. It is the only place in the world where Tantrayans Buddhism is practiced as a way of life.

There are references of Ladakh in Arab, Chinese and Mongolian histories of 7th century AD. Ladakh is famous for its world famous monasteries where hundreds of Lamas live. A monastery is also called GOMPA and is usually built in a solitary place. Every village has a monastery attached to it. Polyandry or plurality of husbands has been practiced in Ladakh since times immemorial. The people of Leh are generally Buddhist whereas the citizens of Kargil are Shia Muslim. Culture of Ladakh is famous for its unique Indo-Tibetan culture. Chanting in Sanskrit and Tibetan language forms an integral part of Ladakh's Buddhist lifestyle. Annual masked dance festivals, weaving and archery are an important part of traditional life in Ladakh. Ladakhi food has much in common with Tibetan food, the most prominent foods being thukpa, noodle soup; and tsampa, known in Ladakhi as Ngampe, roasted barley flour. Typical garb includes gonchas of velvet, elaborately embroidered waistcoats and boots, and gonads or hats. People, adorned with gold and silver ornaments and turquoise headgears throng the streets during various Ladakhi festivals.

The culture of Jammu and Kashmir is a comprehensive mingling of customs and practices of its three distinct regions – Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh. Apart from its demographical variations, specific cultural diversions of its elements are what make it remarkable. Music, dance, cuisine, lifestyle, festivals all these only highlight the diversities prevalent in these provinces. Unity is restored when a common thread of cultural tradition binds them together. The State has a rich tradition of folk music, dance and drama. There are various dance forms performed according to the occasion – various seasons, harvest, weddings and religious festivals.

Kashmiris have made remarkable contributions to the arts of mystical poetry, the Shaiva philosophy, grammar and the sciences. With the spread of Buddhism, many scholars came to Kashmir from far-off lands for research and study. The contact of Kashmiris with the Roman, Greek and Persian civilizations resulted into a fusion of cultures. While the Kashmir has been the highest learning centre of Sanskrit and Persian where early Indo-Aryanic civilization has originated and flourished, it has also been epidemic of Islam bringing into its fold traditions of Persian and Central Asian civilizations.

The artistic and cultural genius of the people of Kashmir is evident in their folk songs and dances as well as the various arts and crafts that are world-renowned. They are considered unrivalled craftsmen, known for their time-honoured intricate and beautiful designs that they produce on papier-maché, wood, silver and gold. They also indulge themselves in agriculture, sheep rearing, cattle rearing and other cottage industries. Kashmir is very rich and unique in arts and crafts. Silk carpets, woven carpets, woolen shawls, rugs, kurtas and pottery are wonderfully embellished. The traditional and well designed boats can be seen and these are composed from wood. The tradition and culture of Kashmir is a compound one. It inhabits a synthetic outline along with harmony in diversity.

After the advent of Islam, Kashmiri music may have been influenced by Iranian music. The musical instrument Santoor used in Kashmir was invented in Iran. Other musical instruments include Nagara, Dukra and Sitar. Many Raaga or Mukams of Kashmiri music are present in Persian i.e. Mukam Duga, Mukam/Nawa and Singha. In the same manner many Persian words are present in Kashmiri Talas i.e. Sol ha, Neamdor Chapandoz etc. Besides, Sufiana music, Chakri and Rouff are other forms of Kashmiri music. Rabab is popular folk music of Kashmir. In Dogra Pahari area of Jammu valley 'Geetru' is performed at the time of festivals like rural weddings and other social festivals. Rouff is also a conventional dance performed by the women of the Kashmir region. Sad songs are sung where these female dancers incorporate aesthetic dance movements. Rouff is performed mainly during Ramzan, Eid and national festivals. Bhand Pather is a traditional folk theatre style combination of play and dance in a satirical style where social traditions , evils are depicted and performed in various social and cultural functions. Bhand Jashan is performed by a group of 10 to 15 artists in their traditional style accompanied by light music for the entertainment of people.

Chakri is most popular form of Kashmiri folk music. It has some resemblance with chakra of mountaineous regions of Uttar Pradesh. Normally Garaha, Sarangi, Rabab were the musical instruments used in the past. But now the harmonium too has made its way in its presentation. Sofians musiqui came to Kashmir from Iran in the 15th century. Over the years it has established itself as the classical music form of Kashmir and has incorporated a number of Indian Ragas in its body. Hafiz Nagma in fact, used to be part of sofiana music. The instruments used in this form are Santoor, Sitar, Kashmiri Saz, Wasool or Tabala. In Hafiz Nagma a dancer is a female while her accompanists on various instruments are males. Hafiza moves her feet on musical notes.

Kud is basically a ritual dance performed in honor of Lok Devatas. This dance style is performed mostly during nights. It is spontaneous dance and people of all ages and sexes participate in this folk dance form. Instruments used during this dance are Narshingha, chhaina, flute, drums etc. It is the rhythm of music which contrils the movement of participants. This dance continues for the whole night. Number of participants ranges from 20 to 30 members. Heren is a traditional theatre form performed during Lohri festival by 10-15 members. This style is mostly performed in hilly regions of Jammu. Fumenie and Jagarana dance style is performed by the ladies on the eve of groom's departure to inlaws house. Both the songs are sung by a group of females consisting 15-20 members. This traditional dance form depicts the feelings and emotions of women folk. Bakh/Gwatri/Kark/Masade is a chorous narrative singing sung by a group of 10 singers without the accompaniment of any musical instruments. Gwatri is a singing/ dance combined tradition in which the singers narrate some text which is enacted by the Gwatari dancers. Karak is a tale ballet singing form sung by a community called 'Jogies'. They narrate a popular folk tale in their dance style, performed by three members with accompaniement of typical folk instrument called 'Rabab'. Benthe is chorous singing tradition performed specific community of trible called Gujjar and Bakerwal. Dance is performed by 5-7 members.

In Ladakh marriages are conducted with great enthusiasm and lasts for at least a couple of days. The main feature of Ladakhi marriage is recitation of long narratives. Marriage songs are sung by the marriage party led by a leader. Singers wear unique costumes especially made for the gay ceremonies. Jabro dance form is peculiar to Chang- Thang and Rong areas of Ladakh region. Both males and females face each other forming rows or circles and dance leaping hand in hand forwards and backwards reciting melodious songs. Alley Yate is basically the dance of shepherds of Zanskar area of Ladakh region. It is a combination of poetry and dance. This dance is peculiar to the time when people go out of their homes with flocks.

Almost all the festivals – Lohri, Shivratri, Holi, Navratri, Baisakhi, Diwali, Gurupurbs, Christmas, Eid and many others are celebrated with equal enthusiasm in the State. People are very fond of celebrating festivals and it constitutes a significant element of the culture of Jammu and Kashmir. The masked dance festivals of Ladakh enthral the tourists. In Uttar Behni area of Jammu valley, Chaitre Chaudash is famous. Bahu Mela is a significant festival observed at the premises of Kali temple in Jammu's Bahu Fort. In Purmandal city of Jammu valley, Purmandal Mela is celebrated in the month of February or March to signify the occasion of wedding of Lord Shiva and goddess Parvati. Dressed in colourful attires the people visit the places like Panjbhaktar Temple,Peer Khoh cave temple and the Ranbireshwar Temple.

Jammu and Kashmir women typically decorate themselves with stuff like necklaces, bangles, earrings, colorful dresses and nose rings. The men wear extra comfortable clothes such shalwars, churidar pyjamas, gurgabi and skullcaps. The common dress for both women and men is Phiran, an extensive slack gown. The Muslin women when wearing pheran basically wear a skull cap which is surrounded by a red hue fillet and in the case of Pandit women a white cloth fillet is worn. A white chaddar or a shawl is thrown elegantly over the skull and shoulders in order to protect the wearer from sun and also to hide the features. Turbans are generally worn by men as a symbol of decency and wealth. In Jammu and Kashmir women are also seen wearing the elegant salwar and sari whereas trousers and coat are worn by men. The colorful dresses of the people of Jammu and Kashmir are very attractive. The majority of the population wear traditional clothes. During the winters they wear a kind of loose overcoat called Pheran. It is basically worn over a kurta. And under the Pheran, is a warm pot of raw charcoal called 'kangri', which helps in keeping them warm.

Kashmiri Muslims used to wear the pheran, a long loose gown hanging down below the knees, a white turban tied on a skull cap, a close-fitting shalwar and lace less shoes called gurgabi. A white piece of material is hung on their shoulders like a stole. Hindu men wear churidar pyjama instead of shalwar. The less affluent Muslims wear skullcaps, which looks cute and does not carry any shawl. Unlike a Hindu woman's pheran, which gives her a Roman look, the Muslim woman's pheran is beautifully embroidered in front. Whereas a Muslim woman's pheran is knee-length, loose and embroidered in front and on the edges, a Hindu woman's pheran touches her feet. For the sake of smartness and ease it is tied at the waist with folded material called lhungi. The long loose sleeves are fashionably decorated with brocade.

With this type of Hindu costume goes the headdress called taranga, which is tied to a hanging bonnet and tapers down to the heels from behind. The folds of the taranga are made of brightly pressed lines fastened to a pointed red-colored and brocaded skull cap with a few gold pins at the sides. Over the head and ears are pieces of muslin embroidered in gold thread. Muslim woman's headgear, the Kasaba, looks very different from the Taranga. It is red in color, tied turban-like and held tight by an abundance of silver pins and trinkets. It has an overhanging pin-scarf, which falls gracefully over the shoulders. A work-a-day shalwar goes with it. Unmarried Muslim girls wear skullcaps, embroidered with gold thread and embellished with silver pendants, trinkets and amulets. With the passage of years, an appreciable change has come about in the dress of the Kashmiri women. Saris, shalwar-kameez, churidars and jeans are becoming popular, yet none of these belong to them as much as the good old pheran.

Gujjars are the hill people of Kashmir, which are mostly herdsmen by occupation. Said to be Rajputs migrated from Rajasthan and adopted the Muslim faith, they are tall and well built, with a prominently Jewish cast of features. Their dialect, Gujari is now identified as a form of a Rajasthani. Their nutritious diet consists of maize bread, whey, jungle roots and fruits. The dress of a Gujjar woman of the hills in the valley consists of as ample shalwar and full-skirted tunic with loose sleeves. Very much similar to that worn by the Turkish village women, a thick veil on their head falls back to their shoulders. They knit their hair in multiple plaits, which hang in front and cover half of their moon-shaped faces.

Kashmiri women generally have such love of jewellery that their headgear, ears, necks and arms glisten with ornaments. The typical ornament that Hindu women wear is the Dejharoo, a pair of gold pendants, hanging on a silk thread or gold chain which passes through holes in the ears pieced at the top end of the lobes. The Dejharoo symbolizes that the Kashmiri Pandit woman is married. Muslim women wear bunches of earrings, the weight of which is supported by a thick silver chain along with several bracelets and necklaces. The whole ensemble lends a most artistic effect to the appearance of Kashmiri women.

Rice is considered as a staple food of Jammu and Kashmir. People take abundance of vegetables when dining but the preferred dish is the karam sag or hak. In many regions, mutton is largely consumed whereas in several towns it is still considered as a reserved treat for festive occasions. Although Kashmiris are the inhabitants of a chilly country therefore they make utilize of invigorating drinks. The green tea is a traditional drink and it is made with almond and spices known as Kahwa. This tea is generally consumed during the winter’s months. Furthermore Kashmiri Pulao is a ordinary dish and its is eaten along with curd, spices and condiments. Muslims refrain from asafetida whereas Kashmiri Pandits desist from using garlic and onions in their meals. A sweet frailty that is Phirni is widely consumed by people of Jammu and Kashmir. Wheat and barley is commonly used in Jammu and Ladakh regions alongwith rice.

The official language of Jammu and Kashmir is Urdu. The other languages spoken here are Kashmiri, Ladakhi, Dogri, Pahari, Pashto, Gojri and Balti. Kashmiri (Koshur) is an Indo-Aryan (Dardic subgroup) language close to Central Asian Avestan-Persian; and, can claim a unique position among the modern Indo- Aryan languages. This is due to its antiquity which may well go back to the Vedic period. Kashmiri has been considerably influenced by Persian and Sanskrit languages.

Kashmiri women generally have such love of jewellery that their headgear, ears, necks and arms glisten with ornaments. The typical ornament that Hindu women wear is the Dejharoo, a pair of gold pendants, hanging on a silk thread or gold chain which passes through holes in the ears pieced at the top end of the lobes. The Dejharoo symbolizes that the Kashmiri Pandit woman is married. Muslim women wear bunches of earrings, the weight of which is supported by a thick silver chain along with several bracelets and necklaces. The whole ensemble lends a most artistic effect to the appearance of Kashmiri women.

Jammu and Kashmir has the distinction of having multifaceted, variegated and unique cultural blend, making it distinct from the rest of the country, not only from the different cultural forms and heritage, but from geographical, demographically, ethical, social entities, forming a distinct spectrum of diversity and diversions into Kashmir, Jammu and Ladakh, all professing diverse religion, language and culture, but continuously intermingling, making it vibrant specimens of Indian Unity amidst diversity. Its different cultural forms like art and architecture, fair and festivals, rites and rituals, seer and sagas, language and mountains, embedded in ageless period of history, speak volumes of unity and diversity with the composite cultural and society.