Issue Brief: High School Dropout Rate Among English Learning Immigrants in New York City

Summary

New York City is the largest city in the United States with a population of 8.9 million.[1] It is also home to one of the highest percentages of immigrants and foreign-born citizens with a foreign-born population share of 29.3%.[2] New York City truly is a melting pot of the world, but unfortunately, difficulties come with this high percentage of immigrants to the city. New York City faces one of the highest high school dropout rates in the United States, especially among non-English speaking immigrants, which is about half of the immigrants in the city. These immigrants face a 20% higher dropout rate than students throughout the rest of the city.[3] They immigrate to the city with their families hoping for a better life and better futures but are faced with academic difficulties, language disconnects, and financial struggles that force over a quarter of these high school students to drop out. This then forces these students into a cycle of financial difficulty, a struggle to meet many of their basic needs, and often homelessness. These immigrants who came to the great American melting pot in search of the American dream are then left in a worse state than they were before. To help these immigrants, something must be done. The City of New York Education Department is currently working on and implementing a program to allow increased access to transfer schools for immigrant youth, to give them the proper education that they need. These are awesome efforts moving forward, but improved teaching city-wide throughout all schools is necessary to completely solve this issue.

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Key Terms

Dropout - Students or young adults are considered dropouts if they are between the ages of 16 and 24 and have neither completed high school nor obtained a GED.[4]

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Pushout - Pushouts are students who enrolled in high school but are encouraged to leave to pursue a GED or abandon school due to factors such as age, behavioral issues, lack of credits, or pregnancy.[5]

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Transfer School - Regarding English learning immigrants, transfer schools are schools that serve under-credited, high school or, older students, and are equipped with programs for English language learners.[6]

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Limited English Proficient (LEP) - Individuals who do not speak English as their primary language and are limited English proficient and have a limited ability to read, speak, write, or understand English.[7]

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English Language Learners (ELL) - A student whose primary home language is not English and who has scored below a cut score on the New York State identification test for ELLs.[8]

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Context

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Q: Where are the immigrants in New York City from?

A: Immigrants in New York City come from all over the world. There are immigrants living in New York City from over 150 different countries[9], speaking over 150 languages.[10] The top immigrant countries include the Dominican Republic with 13.7% of the immigrant population, China with 10%, Jamaica with 5.6%, and Mexico with 5.4%.[11] The immigrant population of ELL students breaks down into 61.7% speaking Spanish, 12.99% speaking Chinese, and 5.8% speaking Arabic.[12] In this article, we will be primarily addressing the Spanish-speaking immigrant population, as they make up the majority of the demographic we will be dealing with.

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Q: What direction are dropout rates heading?

A: A study done in 2019 showed that the four-year dropout rate in New York had risen from 23% to 30% over the previous three years, while the dropout rate for all students had decreased from 7% to 6%.[13] The dropout rate is not only getting worse for the English-learning immigrant populations we will be looking at but is improving for people outside of our target demographic.

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Q: Are dropout rates significantly worse for immigrant populations?

A: Looking at the dropout rates in 2020, it was found that 25% of high school students who are learning English as a new language dropped out of school. This is in comparison to less than 6% of high school students dropping out city-wide.[14]

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Q: How many students are considered English-learning immigrants?

A: In the city, 49% of immigrants are considered English-learning immigrants, and about 28% of students are considered immigrants. With a total high school student population of 320,400 in New York City, that would mean there are about 45,000 students who fall into this category.[15]

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Contributing Factors

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#1 - Language Disconnect

Many high school immigrants are forced or led to drop out due to the language disconnect that they face as English-learning immigrants in this country. In New York City 49% of immigrants are considered limited English proficient or LEP, and it is estimated that nearly 63% of undocumented immigrants are LEP as well.[16] Over half of all immigrants are LEP and are not proficient in English, and of this group, there is a 26% dropout rate[17] compared to a 6% dropout rate citywide.[18] One of the biggest reasons this language disconnect leads to dropout is because of the language disconnect not only with the students but with the parents. Among the city, almost 25% of people are not English proficient,[19] so many of these parents can’t communicate with their children’s teachers or school faculty to figure out how to best help these students. This disconnect then leaves them without the proper help they need to succeed. The lack of language ability combined with a lack of legal status for many of these immigrants also limits college acceptance, scholarships, and employment opportunities,[20] and often leads to students not understanding the importance of school and dropping out.

It is not that these students do not want to be in school, the desire is there, the language disconnect just proves too much, and dropping out becomes inevitable, or seems like the best solution. We see in New York City that 27% of adult education students, or post-high school students seeking education, are immigrant young adults between the ages of 16 to 24.[21] This shows that these young immigrants have the desire to receive an education. It is not a choice to leave because of school, but rather a lack of ability due to language barriers that force them out.

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#2 - Academic Difficulties

Another significant challenge these immigrants face is the academic challenge that lies ahead. Students fall behind in school and drop out or are pushed out due to a lack of credits and inability to graduate. These students are often behind due to poor schooling in their home countries, the language disconnect, and the time it takes to learn English putting them even farther behind in their learning. Only 13% of New York’s ELL students are proficient in math, and 5% are proficient in English.[22] These students are beginning behind in school and only falling further and further behind. The lack of proper education and academic help puts these students further behind academically causing them to drop out or even become pushouts due to their lack of credits and inability to graduate on time. The New York City Department of Education found that in the 2020-2021 school year, 80% of ELL students were served in English as a New Language-only educational instruction.[23] This inefficient method of teaching leads to students being forced to learn English first, before their more formal education, which causes them to fall behind in that more formal education. These only compound and lead to dropouts and pushouts.

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Academic difficulties also cause heightened dropout rates because New York City lacks the teaching capacity and ability, and schools to properly help these students along the path to graduation. The most effective way to help these students is in transfer schools that are equipped for ELL students, where they can be taught the formal education required and language skills simultaneously. Unfortunately, New York City currently has only five transfer schools, four of which are in Manhattan.[24] This is an issue because the majority of unenrolled immigrant youth in the city who require these services live in Queens, Brooklyn, and the Bronx.[25] As well, teachers in New York City are underqualified to help these immigrant students. Since 1990, New York is one of two states that has had a consistent yearly shortage of certified bilingual teachers, a percentage that is over 20%.[26] These underqualified teachers are yet again compounding the academic difficulty that is causing the high immigrant dropout rate. The lack of transfer schools, underqualified teachers, and lack of effective teaching for these students all add up to a level of academic difficulty that makes it incredibly difficult for these students not only to succeed in school but to even pass, causing high dropout and pushout rates among the ELL immigrant population.

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#3 - Financial Struggles

Finally, financial struggles are the last factor that is causing above-average high school dropout rates among immigrants in New York City. In New York City, Latino immigrants constitute nearly 40% of workers among the youngest age group, with nearly 195,000 foreign-born 16 to 24-year-olds in the labor market.[27] This shows that many young adults who could be enrolled in high school or high school equivalency programs are focusing much of their time and energy on earning a living and providing for themselves or their families financially. Many of these young high school-age immigrants, both Latino and from other countries, are compelled to get jobs in high school to help their families financially.[28] Although New York is a melting pot of cultures, the profits are not always spread evenly across the melting pot. In NYC foreign-born workers make up 45% of the city’s labor force, and own 52% of NYC’s businesses, but only contribute to 22% of the city's GDP.[29] Without dwelling on the causes of this, these statistics show us that foreign-born immigrant workers make up a large population of the workforce while making less profit than many other workers in the city. These pay gaps cause many of these high school-age immigrants to drop out to provide for the financial needs and financial burdens that their families are dealing with.

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Negative Consequences

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#1 - Struggles to provide for basic needs

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Dropping out of high school leads to significant issues and many negative consequences for anyone, especially for these non-English speaking immigrant populations. The first consequences that we see are the financial struggles that come with dropping out of high school. Statistically in the United States, this is an issue as each year, someone without a high school diploma earns about $9,500 less than a graduating counterpart.[30] Straight off the bat those without a diploma are already making significantly less money. We then see this even more prevalent in New York City. The Mayor’s Office of Immigrant Affairs in New York City found in a study that the median earnings of undocumented immigrants are $23,175 compared to the New York City average of $38,287.[31] This is a significant difference, especially in a city where the cost of living is so high. In New York City the average rent alone is $3,805 a month,[32] which already far outweighs the average income of these immigrants. This doesn’t include the average monthly cost of living excluding rent in New York City which is $1,435.[33] The high cost of living causes many of these immigrant high school dropouts to be rent burdened by the low income and high costs. Citywide 57.8% of undocumented households are considered rent-burdened or extremely rent burdened.[34] This means that they are paying 30%-50% of their household income purely on rent.[35] These immigrant students drop out and are immediately faced with the high costs of living in New York City that only continue to grow as they grow older. They are then unable to get jobs that pay enough to cover their expenses and are paid significantly less because they do not have a high school diploma.

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These financial struggles from immigrants not having a diploma then continue to cause issues in other areas of life as well. In New York City 57.7% of undocumented immigrants have no health insurance, mostly due to financial struggles.[36] This is significantly lower than the city average of 11.1% of people without health insurance.[37] Many immigrant families are also forced into homes together due to financial struggles. 35.4% of immigrant households are considered overcrowded or extremely overcrowded, compared to 18.3% citywide.[38] This means there are 1 to 1.5 people living in the household per room in the house.[39] As we can see from all this data, immigrants who drop out of high school struggle to pay rent and provide shelter, obtain health care, and have enough space to live comfortably. Basic needs are a struggle for these people stemming from the high school dropout rates.

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#2 - Cyclical minimum wage, blue-collar jobs, and dropouts

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In addition to basic human needs not being met, rising high school dropout rates are also leading to a cycle of minimum wage, blue-collar jobs, and continual dropouts in the future generations. When a student drops out it often puts them into a cycle that is difficult to get out of. A study showed that students who drop out of high school are more likely to live a life of periodic unemployment and have a higher rate of using government assistance.[40] This throws them into a cycle of difficulty. People without a diploma also statistically cycle in and out of the prison system more often than students who obtain a high school diploma.[41] We also see that many of these dropouts who are women also tend to be single mothers, which is yet another difficult situation that often leads to a cycle of struggle.[42] After dropping out it is almost inevitable that these immigrants enter this cycle of low-wage jobs due to low educational opportunities and job opportunities, which continues for generations.

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After entering this cycle through unemployment, single motherhood, prison, or whatever other circumstances that often come with dropping out of high school, these immigrants then have a nearly impossible time getting out of this cycle. Many jobs aren’t even accessible for high school dropouts. It is estimated that 65% of all jobs in 2020 required some form of education after high school.[43] That number has only grown in the past few years and is even higher for those with less than a high school education. Finally, these immigrants are then forced into lower-paying jobs. The top five jobs held by immigrant workers are health care, food service, retail, education services, and transportation and warehousing, all of which are lower-paying jobs.[44] This is the final piece to a cycle of struggle that often leads to generations of dropouts and all these negative consequences.

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#3 - Rising levels of homelessness

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The last negative consequence English-learning immigrants face due to rising dropout rates is a rising level of homelessness. Nationally high school dropouts use government assistance at a higher rate than high school graduates and need government assistance to survive.[45] This number only increases in New York City with such high levels of homelessness. With the growth in dropout rates of English-learning immigrants in the past 3 years from 23% to 30%,[46] we have also seen a rise in people living in shelters in New York City. In October of 2022, there were four days in a row of record-breaking numbers of people living in shelters in New York City.[47] Dropouts are increasing as are the numbers of homelessness in the city. High school dropouts also account for 67% of inmates in state prisons and 56% of federal prisons.[48] This is significant because in the United States people who have experienced incarceration are ten times more likely to experience homelessness.[49] This population of English-learning immigrants is no exception to these statistics and is faced with rising levels and a rising probability of homelessness as their dropout rates rise as well.

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Best Practices - Practice

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Additional Spots in Transfer Schools

Given the language barrier and academic struggles many of these English Learning Immigrants face, the best practice implemented to help solve this dropout issue is opening additional spots in Transfer Schools that are best equipped to truly serve and help these students. The New York Education Collaborative is currently working on a proposed pilot program to implement this best practice.[50] The coalition’s proposal for a pilot program would open more seats at two schools each in Queens, Brooklyn, and the Bronx — the boroughs where most of these students live.[51] As well, Deputy Chancellor Carolyne Quintana said the city is planning to “expand the number of transfer schools that currently serve the needs of our English language learner population” in the upcoming school year.[52] This addition of additional transfer schools in neighborhoods where students are struggling will make a huge difference in the education and academic situation of these immigrant students. This is one of the most viable and realistic solutions to the problem, and in addition, results can even be seen now as additional seats for these students are made available in already functioning transfer school.

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Impact

With the New York Education Collaborative’s pilot program being a relatively new initiative that only started last year in 2022, there is not a lot of data to measure the specific impact of the Collaborative’s efforts with this best practice. Most information regarding this practice they are implementing focuses on the outputs that come with it, and not the outcomes or impact of those outputs. However, transfer schools have been a large part of New York City for many years, and there is data on transfer schools' impact in general, which we can assume will continue as we make these transfer schools’ benefits and programs more available to our target audience of English learning immigrants. Researchers at NYU have studied the impacts of transfer schools in New York City specifically throughout history. They have found that NYC’s transfer school sector is reducing this percentage by more than half.[53] An article posted by NYU researchers said, “We should define the transfer sector as not only an effective recuperative effort but an innovative field. The transfer sector’s interventions can help us develop more effective schooling for all our high school students.”[54] Although the impact has not been tracked for the specific demographic of English-learning immigrants, historically transfer schools have had a positive impact on high school dropout rates.

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Gaps

The biggest hurdle that must be overcome for this practice to be fully utilized is the cost. The pilot program that the New York Education Collaborative is working on will cost about $8.2 million over the next three years to implement.[55] This cost is going to be a good cause and will be effective in opening more spots in transfer schools, but the educational budget in New York City is already tight. New York has already seen many teachers leave the public school system for higher pay in private schools in the city, and money is an issue the city is actively facing. As well, with dipping numbers in enrollment through the city anyway, many people such as Norma Vega, a principal in New York City, think it might be difficult to justify building another school, whether it is a transfer school or not.[56] Although Vega also does agree that building new schools is the best way to truly give these students the best chance at success.

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Key Takeaways

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●??????New York has an extremely high population of immigrants moving into the city who have the right to the same chances and opportunities at education as American-born citizens and students.

●??????Many immigrants face a language disconnect as well as financial and academic difficulties that lead to an above-average high school dropout rate among those immigrant populations.

●??????High immigrant dropout rates have become a serious issue as they lead to cyclical financial struggles and often difficulties to provide for basic needs in the future as well as homelessness.

●??????The current best practice by the New York Department of Education is making seats more available in transfer schools as well as working on creating new transfer schools, but more widespread effective teaching methods for these students are required to truly solve this problem.

[1] (Peer-Reviewed) World City Populations 2023, 2023. https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities.

[2] “Cities with the Largest Immigrant Populations.” Background Checks.org. Accessed March 31, 2023. https://backgroundchecks.org/cities-largest-immigrant-population.html.

[3] Reema Amim, “Thousands of Young NYC Immigrant Didn’t Enroll in School. Advocates Want to Fix That.,” Chalkbeat New York, February 19, 2020,

[4] (Peer-Reviewed) Lukes, Marguerite. "Pushouts, shutouts, and holdouts: Educational experiences of Latino immigrant young adults in New York City." Urban Education 49, no. 7 (2014): 806-834.

[5] Lukes, Marguerite. "Pushouts, shutouts, and holdouts: Educational experiences of Latino immigrant young adults in New York City." Urban Education 49, no. 7 (2014): 806-834.

[6] Reema Amim, “Thousands of Young NYC Immigrant Didn’t Enroll in School. Advocates Want to Fix That.,” Chalkbeat New York, February 19, 2020, https://ny.chalkbeat.org/2020/2/19/21178621/thousands-of-young-nyc-immigrant-didn-t-enroll-in-school-advocates-want-to-fix-that.

[7] (Peer-Reviewed) “Commonly Asked Questions and Answers Regarding Limited English Proficient (LEP) Individuals,” April 2011, https://www.lep.gov/sites/lep/files/media/document/2020-03/042511_QA_LEP_General_0.pdf.

[8] (Peer-Reviewed) “2020-2021 ELL Demographics: At-a-Glance,” 2021. https://infohub.nyced.org/docs/default-source/default-document-library/sy-2020-21-ell-demographics-at-a-glance.pdf.

[9] Nyc.gov. “Our Immigrant Population Helps Power NYC Economy,” 2023. https://comptroller.nyc.gov/reports/our-immigrant-population-helps-power-nyc-economy/#:~:text=New%20York%20City%20has%203.3.

[10] American Immigration Council. “Immigrants in New York,” June 1, 2015. https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/research/immigrants-in-new-york#:~:text=New%20York%20was%20home%20to.

[11] Nyc.gov. “Our Immigrant Population Helps Power NYC Economy,” 2023. https://comptroller.nyc.gov/reports/our-immigrant-population-helps-power-nyc-economy/#:~:text=New%20York%20City%20has%203.3.

[12] “2020-2021 ELL Demographics: At-a-Glance,” 2021. https://infohub.nyced.org/docs/default-source/default-document-library/sy-2020-21-ell-demographics-at-a-glance.pdf.

[13] Acevedo, Nicole. “New York Is Failing Non-English Speaking Students, Report Finds.” NBC News, February 28, 2019. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/new-york-failing-non-english-speaking-students-report-finds-n977086.

[14] Reema Amim, “Thousands of Young NYC Immigrant Didn’t Enroll in School. Advocates Want to Fix That.,” Chalkbeat New York, February 19, 2020, https://ny.chalkbeat.org/2020/2/19/21178621/thousands-of-young-nyc-immigrant-didn-t-enroll-in-school-advocates-want-to-fix-that.

[15] “NYC Public Schools: What Does It Mean to Be the Nation's Largest School District?” NYU Steinhardt, February 16, 2023. https://steinhardt.nyu.edu/research-alliance/research/spotlight-nyc-schools/nyc-public-schools-what-does-it-mean-be-nations#:~:text=NYC's%20high%20school%20population%20of,in%20Chicago%20and%20Houston%20combined.

[16] (Peer-Reviewed) “State of Our Immigrant City Annual Report,” 2018. https://www1.nyc.gov/assets/immigrants/downloads/pdf/moia_annual_report_2018_final.pdf.

[17] kbillings. “New Data Shows Drop-out Crisis among Newcomer Immigrants in NYC Schools - NYC, Long Island, New York State.” New York Immigration Coalition - Revision, February 19, 2020. https://www.nyic.org/2020/02/new-data-shows-drop-out-crisis-among-newcomer-immigrants-in-nyc-schools/.

[18] Reema Amim, “Thousands of Young NYC Immigrant Didn’t Enroll in School. Advocates Want to Fix That.,” Chalkbeat New York, February 19, 2020, https://ny.chalkbeat.org/2020/2/19/21178621/thousands-of-young-nyc-immigrant-didn-t-enroll-in-school-advocates-want-to-fix-that.

[19]https://www.theinfatuation.com/new-york/features/what-its-like-running-nyc-restaurant-when-you-dont-speak-english

[20] Kirk Semple, “Mexicans in New York City Lag in Education,” The New York Times, November 25, 2011, https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/25/nyregion/mexicans-in-new-york-city-lag-in-education.html

[21] Lukes, Marguerite. "Pushouts, shutouts, and holdouts: Educational experiences of Latino immigrant young adults in New York City." Urban Education 49, no. 7 (2014): 806-834.

[22] Acevedo, Nicole. “New York Is Failing Non-English Speaking Students, Report Finds.” NBC News, February 28, 2019. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/new-york-failing-non-english-speaking-students-report-finds-n977086.

[23] “2020-2021 ELL Demographics: At-a-Glance,” 2021. https://infohub.nyced.org/docs/default-source/default-document-library/sy-2020-21-ell-demographics-at-a-glance.pdf.

[24] Reema Amim, “Thousands of Young NYC Immigrant Didn’t Enroll in School. Advocates Want to Fix That.,” Chalkbeat New York, February 19, 2020, https://ny.chalkbeat.org/2020/2/19/21178621/thousands-of-young-nyc-immigrant-didn-t-enroll-in-school-advocates-want-to-fix-that.

[25] kbillings. “New Data Shows Drop-out Crisis among Newcomer Immigrants in NYC Schools - NYC, Long Island, New York State.” New York Immigration Coalition - Revision, February 19, 2020. https://www.nyic.org/2020/02/new-data-shows-drop-out-crisis-among-newcomer-immigrants-in-nyc-schools/.

[26] Acevedo, Nicole. “New York Is Failing Non-English Speaking Students, Report Finds.” NBC News, February 28, 2019. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/new-york-failing-non-english-speaking-students-report-finds-n977086.

[27] Lukes, Marguerite. "Pushouts, shutouts, and holdouts: Educational experiences of Latino immigrant young adults in New York City." Urban Education 49, no. 7 (2014): 806-834.

[28] Kirk Semple, “Mexicans in New York City Lag in Education,” The New York Times, November 25, 2011, https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/25/nyregion/mexicans-in-new-york-city-lag-in-education.html

[29] “State of Our Immigrant City Annual Report,” 2018. https://www1.nyc.gov/assets/immigrants/downloads/pdf/moia_annual_report_2018_final.pdf.

[30] (Peer-Reviewed) “Why Students Dropout of High School (the Consequences and How to Prevent It) ? American High School Academy.” American High School Academy, February 6, 2019. https://americanhighschoolacademy.com/students-dropout-high-school-consequences-prevention.

[31] “Press Release.” NYC Mayor's Office of Immigrant Affairs Releases Fourth Annual Report. Accessed March 10, 2023.https://www.nyc.gov/site/immigrants/about/press-releases/nyc-moia-releases-fourth-annual-report-2021-04-19.page.

[32] Staff, Corporate Suites. “How Much Is the Cost of Living in New York City?” Corporate Suites, October 22, 2021. https://www.corporatesuites.com/how-much-is-the-cost-of-living-in-new-york-city/.

[33] “Cost of Living in New York.” , New York. Mar 2023. Prices in New York. Accessed March 10, 2023. https://www.numbeo.com/cost-of-living/in/New-York.

[34] “Press Release.” NYC Mayor's Office of Immigrant Affairs Releases Fourth Annual Report. Accessed March 10, 2023.https://www.nyc.gov/site/immigrants/about/press-releases/nyc-moia-releases-fourth-annual-report-2021-04-19.page.

[35] (Peer-Reviewed) Portes, Alejandro. “The Schooling of Children of Immigrants: Contextual Effects on ... - PNAS.” Accessed March 11, 2023. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0403418101.

[36] “Press Release.” NYC Mayor's Office of Immigrant Affairs Releases Fourth Annual Report. Accessed March 10, 2023.https://www.nyc.gov/site/immigrants/about/press-releases/nyc-moia-releases-fourth-annual-report-2021-04-19.page.

[37] Portes, Alejandro. “The Schooling of Children of Immigrants: Contextual Effects on ... - PNAS.” Accessed March 11, 2023. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0403418101.

[38] “Press Release.” NYC Mayor's Office of Immigrant Affairs Releases Fourth Annual Report. Accessed March 10, 2023.https://www.nyc.gov/site/immigrants/about/press-releases/nyc-moia-releases-fourth-annual-report-2021-04-19.page.

[39] “Press Release.” NYC Mayor's Office of Immigrant Affairs Releases Fourth Annual Report. Accessed March 10, 2023.https://www.nyc.gov/site/immigrants/about/press-releases/nyc-moia-releases-fourth-annual-report-2021-04-19.page.

[40] (Peer-Reviewed) Barrington, Kate. “What Is the Impact of High School Graduation Rates?” Public School Review. Public School Review, November 22, 2022. https://www.publicschoolreview.com/blog/what-is-the-impact-of-high-school-graduation-rates.

[41]?Jaleel, Sarah. “The Undeniable Link between Incarceration & Homelessness.” Housing Up, August 23, 2022. https://housingup.org/2022/08/23/the-undeniable-link-between-incarceration-homelessness/#:~:text=In%20the%20US%2C%20people%20who,general%20public%20to%20experience%20homelessness.

[42] Barrington, Kate. “What Is the Impact of High School Graduation Rates?” Public School Review. Public School Review, November 22, 2022. https://www.publicschoolreview.com/blog/what-is-the-impact-of-high-school-graduation-rates.

[43] Barrington, Kate. “What Is the Impact of High School Graduation Rates?” Public School Review. Public School Review, November 22, 2022. https://www.publicschoolreview.com/blog/what-is-the-impact-of-high-school-graduation-rates.

[44] “Immigrants in New York.” American Immigration Council, September 16, 2021. https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/research/immigrants-in-new-york#:~:text=New%20York%20was%20home%20to,and%20India%20(4%20percent).

[45] Barrington, Kate. “What Is the Impact of High School Graduation Rates?” Public School Review. Public School Review, November 22, 2022. https://www.publicschoolreview.com/blog/what-is-the-impact-of-high-school-graduation-rates.

[46] Acevedo, Nicole. “New York Is Failing Non-English Speaking Students, Report Finds.” NBC News, February 28, 2019. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/new-york-failing-non-english-speaking-students-report-finds-n977086.

[47] Hicks, Nolan. “Ready to Blow: Ny Shelter Population Hits Record 62K as Migrants Keep Coming.” New York Post. New York Post, October 12, 2022. https://nypost.com/2022/10/12/nyc-shelter-population-hits-record-as-migrant-buses-keep-arriving/.

[48] Barrington, Kate. “What Is the Impact of High School Graduation Rates?” Public School Review. Public School Review, November 22, 2022. https://www.publicschoolreview.com/blog/what-is-the-impact-of-high-school-graduation-rates.

[49] Jaleel, Sarah. “The Undeniable Link between Incarceration & Homelessness.” Housing Up, August 23, 2022. https://housingup.org/2022/08/23/the-undeniable-link-between-incarceration-homelessness/#:~:text=In%20the%20US%2C%20people%20who,general%20public%20to%20experience%20homelessness.

[50] “NYC to Expand Transfer High Schools to Help English Language Learners,” Center for Integrated Training & Education, accessed February 12, 2023, https://www.citeprograms.com/nyc-to-expand-transfer-high-schools-to-help-english-language-learners/.

[51] Amin, Reema. “Thousands of Young NYC Immigrant Didn't Enroll in School. Advocates Want to Fix That.” Chalkbeat New York. Chalkbeat New York, February 19, 2020. https://ny.chalkbeat.org/2020/2/19/21178621/thousands-of-young-nyc-immigrant-didn-t-enroll-in-school-advocates-want-to-fix-that.

[52] Amin, Reema. “NYC to Expand Transfer High Schools to Help English Language Learners.” Chalkbeat New York. Chalkbeat New York, May 11, 2022. https://ny.chalkbeat.org/2022/5/11/23067687/nyc-newcomer-immigrants-transfer-schools-expansion.

[53] “Recuperation and Innovation: New York City's Transfer High Schools.” NYU Steinhardt, April 20, 2021. https://steinhardt.nyu.edu/metrocenter/recuperation-and-innovation-new-york-citys-transfer-high-schools?fbclid=IwAR17BQ1goWq_MK9tbL32_nxJNbg3iR00SZ_2KqymZqkxeXqckv3GWWc2YS8.

[54] “Recuperation and Innovation: New York City's Transfer High Schools.” NYU Steinhardt, April 20, 2021. https://steinhardt.nyu.edu/metrocenter/recuperation-and-innovation-new-york-citys-transfer-high-schools?fbclid=IwAR17BQ1goWq_MK9tbL32_nxJNbg3iR00SZ_2KqymZqkxeXqckv3GWWc2YS8.

[55] Amin, Reema. “NYC to Expand Transfer High Schools to Help English Language Learners.” Chalkbeat New York. Chalkbeat New York, May 11, 2022. https://ny.chalkbeat.org/2022/5/11/23067687/nyc-newcomer-immigrants-transfer-schools-expansion.

[56] Amin, Reema. “NYC to Expand Transfer High Schools to Help English Language Learners.” Chalkbeat New York. Chalkbeat New York, May 11, 2022. https://ny.chalkbeat.org/2022/5/11/23067687/nyc-newcomer-immigrants-transfer-schools-expansion.?