ISEC May 2024 Newsletter
International Space Elevator Consortium
Routine, simple, low cost access to space
In this Issue:
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Remembrance of Michael “Fitzer” Fitzgerald
by Vern Hall
?On April 25, 2024, I had the privilege to attend the Memorial Mass and subsequent burial services for Michael A. Fitzgerald (“Fitzer”), ISEC Director Emeritus and Chief Architect. The services were held at Holy Trinity Catholic Church in San Pedro, CA and at Green Hills Memorial Park in Rancho Palos Verdes, CA.
Fitzer passed away at 0100 on the morning of his 77th Birthday, March 28, 2024.
In attendance to honor Fitzer were over 100 individuals from his family, neighbors, friends, business clients, parishioners, and former Air Force associates. Eight pall bearers participated in the services. Several attendees travelled from across the country to be there. Prior to the start of mass, a longtime friend and four-year roommate at the U.S. Air Force Academy gave remarks that highlighted his time there and described his stalwart character.
At the request of his wife, Kathy, I then presented a brief summary of his role in ISEC and his influence on the development of the Space Elevator Transportation System. Following my remarks, a mass of remembrance was conducted by Father Ivan Gerovac, former Chaplain of the U.S. Air Force Base and resident priest at the Fort MacArthur Chapel, where Fitzer was a lector for many years. It was ironic, but not coincidental, that the Deacon assisting at mass was a good friend, Dr. Walter Lauderdale, a retired Air Force Colonel, and the U.S. Space Force’s Launch Enterprise Systems Directorate Falcon Division Chief.
Following the formal mass of remembrance, Fitzer’s wife and sons sponsored a reception luncheon during which many stories were shared.
On a brisk but sunny afternoon, the services for Fitzer continued at his grave site which is but a mile or so from his home of over 30 years in Rancho Palos Verdes. He was buried with full military honors conducted by 5 members of the Air Force stationed at March Air Force Base, some 85 miles to the east of the cemetery. These honors included a standing salute by all current and former members of the military while Taps was played, a three-volley rifle salute, and the folding of the U.S. flag and its presentation to his wife. Following the brief Catholic graveside service conducted by Father Gerovac, Fitzer’s eldest son, Brian, gave a stirring recounting of Fitzer’s life as a father, Air Force officer working on secret missions, coach, sports fan, and consultant to the space industry. Brian emphasized a key characteristic of his dad: Standing Firm.
As I quoted Fitzer in my earlier remarks: “I am not always right, but I am always certain.”? He was certain that the Space Elevator Transportation System will be a reality someday and it will be “the road through space.”
Let me end my remarks with some words that Fitzer wrote that I believe contain the essence of the man:
“A friend of mine once said: I am not always right…but I am always certain. In the sense of that assertion, I (Fitzer) am certain that the physical elements of the space elevator will become places…places that will be the core of the coming space architecture. I am certain.”
“The space elevator is the galactic ride to anywhere and everywhere."
“I am truly proud to be part of this revolution. I am trying hard to get it started.”
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President's Corner
by Peter Swan, Ph.D
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My good friend and major contributor to our ISEC development, Fitzer, once said:
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Dreams and visions tell us where we’re going; education tells us where we are; hard work is the road between.
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This leaves us with the realization that we, as a united ISEC community, must gather together and push for where we want our project to go. Fitzer’s passing last month should ensure that all of us dream of the future, but hard work leads others toward the future. He was a main player in our outreach and as such, I would like to ensure we are ready for this year’s three major thrusts:
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Thrust A: Participate in the NSS International Space Development Conference in Los Angeles in late May. (See the following article below.) We have major activities there with a technical session, sponsorship of a major reception, support of our Academic Challenge student winners as they present posters, and general interactions throughout the four days.
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Thrust B: Support and participate in the Chicago ISEC Space Elevator Conference in September, presenting papers, participating in general discussions, and enjoying the yearly camaraderie (see SEC article, below).
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Thrust C: Participate in the Milan International Astronomical Congress in October. We always run a technical session and participate across other topics such as space solar power and global sustainability.
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We value your input and believe that we must be able to share our dreams and visions while showing the processes and testing projected into the future for the successful development of space elevators around the globe. This requires participation and outreach. Please contribute where you can!
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Pete
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International Space Development Conference : Space Elevator Technical Session
“Space Settlements Enabled by Transformational Permanent Infrastructures”
Sponsored by the National Space Society
Sheraton Gateway Hotel, Los Angeles, California
Saturday, May 25th, from 2:00 pm until 6:00 pm in the Laguna Room
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Schedule:
2:00 - 2:10 ?Opening Session Remarks by Peter Swan, Ph.D
2:10 - 2:30? Modern-Day Space Elevators, Transformational Permanent Infrastructures by Peter Swan, Ph.D.
2:30 - 2:40? Dual Space Access Strategy by Jerry Eddy, Ph.D.
2:40 - 2:55? Planetary Defense by Paul Phister, Ph.D, P.E.
2:55 - 3:00? Space Elevator Visualizer 1 by Aidan Hurley-Kalici
3:00 - 3:15? "Space Policy Mission: Green Orbit" by the 美国哥伦比亚大学 Space Elevator Academic Challenge Grand Prize winners Selin Mordeniz and Elliot Heath with their mentors Adam Dawood , Anastasia Shmeleva and Isabel Tenney
3:15 - 3:20? Introduction to Ongoing Research Items by Dennis Wright , Ph.D.
3:20 - 3:40? Strong Materials for the Space Elevator: Status and Behavior at the Climber-Tether Interface by Dennis Wright, Ph.D.
3:40 - 4:00? Delivering Power to the Space Elevator Climber by Larry Bartoszek
4:00 - 4:10 ?Cyclic Transportation System by Paul Phister, Ph.D.
4:10 - 4:20? A State-of-the-Art Simulator for the Space Elevator by Dennis Wright, Ph.D.
4:20 - 4:30? Apex Anchor Full Service Transportation Node by Paul Phister, Ph.D. and Peter Swan, Ph.D.
4:30 - 4:40? Reassessing the Requirements for a Relevant Space Elevator by Steven Griggs
4:50 - 5:00? Space Train: A Novel Solution to the Space Elevator Technology by Ned Popovich
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5:00 - 6:00 ?Panel: Vision to Reality: Making NSS’s Goals Happen
5:00 - 5:05? "Challenge the Community" by Panel Lead, Jason "Hap" Arnold , Ed.D.
5:05 - 5:20? Explanation of NSS Goals 2024 by Dave Dressler
5:20 - 5:30? "Space Elevator Capabilities" by Peter Swan, Ph.D.
5:30 - 5:55? Q&A from Audience moderated by Dennis Wright, Ph.D.
5:55 - 6:00? Closing Remarks by Jason Arnold, Ed.D.
Note: This schedule is subject to change.
Space Elevator Academic Challenge 2024 Results
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We are proud to announce the winners of the 2024 Space Elevator Academic Challenge!
Each of the teams supported one of two challenges during their research from either a university or a high school. The first challenge asked them to assess how their selected “mission” would benefit from the “green road” access to space that space elevators would provide. The second challenge asked each to explain how artificial intelligence (AI) technologies could be used to enhance the capability of the space elevator’s transformational characteristics in achieving their chosen “mission.”
The International Space Elevator Consortium (ISEC), in conjunction with the National Space Society (NSS), sponsored this student research related to space. The teams have been invited to the NSS International Space Development Conference in LA in late May.
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High School Category
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1st Place ($2000.00)
Title: Mission Demeter
Team: Anela Uluwehi Monell (Lead), Abigayle Byers, Joshua Reid, and Alexander Lim of Makua Lani Christian Academy High School, Hawaii
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2nd Place ($1000.00)
Title: Mars Delivery Service
Team: Leo Shiina (Lead), Darby Powell, Kara da Luz, and Misato Sobue of Saint Cecilla School and Japanese School in San Francisco, CA
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3rd Place ($500)
Title: Thermal Electricity Storage System with Solar Panels
Solo Entrant: Dylan Beach of Makua Lani Christian Academy High School, Hawaii
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University Category
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1st Place ($2000.00)
Title: Space Policy Mission – Green Orbit
Team: Selin Mordeniz (lead), Elliot Heath , Kuan “Frank” Zhang, and Laura Topolski of Columbia University, New York City, NY
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2nd Place tie ($750.00)
Title: Harvesting the Cosmos
Team: Adam Williams (lead), and Michael Williams of University of Minnesota, Colorado School of Mines
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2nd Place tie ($750.00)
Title: AI Enhanced Operations and Maintenance
Solo Entrant: Henrique Etrusco Ribeiro Moreira of Vanier College, Quebec
Space Elevator Conference 2024 Updates and Call for Papers
Space Elevator Conference Updates
The International Space Elevator Consortium will hold its annual, in-person conference in Chicago on Saturday, September 7th, and Sunday, September 8th 2024.
Among other topics, we will be discussing the use of graphene for the space elevator tether, space elevator missions and functionality, and simulation and visualization of the space elevator.?
Join us to listen to the top voices in the Space Elevator community and to offer your input in our breakout sessions.
Location: Aon building in downtown Chicago
Please check our events page for more information.
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Registration fee:
Act now! Super Early bird registration ends June 15. Receive $75 off the regular conference price. Pay only $200 for to participate in the premier Space Elevator Conference in the US!
Regular Conference price: $275 US per person (student and speaker discounts available)
Included in the fee:
+ Continental breakfast both days
+ Lunch both days
+ Engaging presentations about Space Elevators
+ Opportunity to engage in small break-out workshops
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Accommodations:
Be a part of history and join us as we contemplate reaching space!
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REGISTER NOW!
If you have any questions, please contact [email protected] , Conference Co-chair
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Call for Papers
Abstracts
If you have a space elevator topic you’d like to present, we encourage you to submit an abstract to the review board chairman, [email protected] , before May 31st.?The review board will inform you before June 15th if your topic is accepted for presentation. Preference will be given to in-person presenters. Abstracts should be between 200 and 400 words in length and describe briefly the contents of the proposed paper and its importance to the development of space elevators. Abstracts must be in pdf format.
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History Corner
by David Raitt, ISEC Chief Historian
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Jules Verne and Space Elevators -- No connection!
An episode first aired in May 2009 in the Canadian TV series Murdoch Mysteries mentioned the book by Jules Verne, published in 1865, entitled "From the Earth to the Moon - Direct in Ninety-Seven Hours and Twenty Minutes." Asked by a young boy whether space travel was possible, Murdoch explained that if an object were able to travel upwards before gravity could dispel it downwards then it would be theoretically possible. The episode prompted me to revisit Jules Verne's story. Very brief mention is made of Verne's ideas in the ISEC book "Space Elevators: A History" because it concerned a bullet-shaped projectile fired from a cannon or space gun and thus was not entirely relevant, unlike other early descriptions of getting into space by Tsiolkovsky and Artsutanov. In his book, Verne alluded to Cyrano de Bergerac's tale, as well as other old texts, and he did make some rough calculations relating to distance, velocity, and time required as well as the Moon's position at the time of cannon discharge, in which direction the cannon should be aimed, and exactly when it should be fired.
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It is worth noting that Tsiolkovsky cited Jules Verne as an inspiration when doing his work and I thought I'd take a look to see whether Jules Verne was anywhere mentioned in the same breath as space elevators. I did come across several articles which looked promising, but although space elevators and Jules Verne are mentioned, almost in passing, there were, unsurprisingly, no direct links between them. But because they are historical articles and still of interest and with some different images, then I have included some brief details about them listed here in publication order.
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In a Press Release from the Freie Universit?t Berlin, dated 8 January 2010, titled "An Elevator into Space: How Vision and Science Have Affected Each Other", historian Alexander Geppert traced an arc from Jules Verne to the present day. Geppert was interested in how European conceptions of the cosmos and extraterrestrial life changed in step with the progress of space exploration. He received a grant of around one million euros from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Research Foundation) to establish a field of historical academic research in the field of spaceflight. The press release includes mentions of Jules Verne and Arthur C. Clarke, as well as Tsiolkovsky. Geppert notes that "Practically unnoticed by the general public, researchers are seriously pursuing the development of a space elevator to this day."
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Responding to a question on a weight vs weightless post in Wired, Rhett Allain, in an article entitled "Weight in Jules Verne's From the Earth to the Moon" published on 16 July 2011, first gives a connection to literature -- namely the description in Jules Verne's book about reaching the neutral point when neither his intrepid travellers themselves, nor the objects enclosed in the projectile, would be any longer subject to the laws of weight. Allain then provides a fairly detailed explanation as to the reason and actually uses the term space elevator to show the effect of gravitational force.
A brief page in Contractor Supply for 27 Feb 2012 starts off "I'm from Iowa. I only work in outer space." -- Captain James T. Kirk. The text continues: "Jules Verne would be proud. The technology needed to make it doable is nearly in place. The biggest question remaining: who would pay for it?" Then follows a short announcement about Obayashi's concept of and plans for a nanotube-cable elevator that would ferry materials and passengers to a space station in orbit 22,000 miles above the Earth.
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Then, on 12 February 2016, in Science World, under the heading "The Space Elevator: Reach for the Sky!", there is a short piece that states "They say science fiction is just reality ahead of schedule and that certainly seems to be true. In 1895, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, having been inspired by the science fiction of Jules Verne, proposed a tower that reached all the way from earth to geostationary orbit. This is a high Earth orbit that allows satellites to circle the planet at a speed matched to earth’s rotation. Now, more than 120 years later, this fiction may become a reality thanks to international efforts from scientists and engineers." The article goes on to mention Thoth Technology's idea of using inflatable towers.
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In 2019, Texas Sparring discussed a space elevator and its components as part of his degree thesis for Stockholm’s Royal Institute of Technology and asked whether fiction could become fact. He mentions Jules Verne, who could only go with the technology of the time, and like him, he wanted to connect with the technology of today which is why he undertook his project. Since his work is essentially architectural, I will discuss this thesis and give the link to his study in the next newsletter.
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Finally, the BBC Sky at Night magazine for 7 February 2024, has a contribution from Jon Powell on "7 spaceflight inventions that never took off" (which originally appeared in the November 2021 issue of BBC Sky at Night magazine). Powell writes "An airship on Venus? A space elevator? A lunar cycle? These are just some of the proposed methods of space travel that didn't make it past the drawing board." Powell continues "Let’s take the space elevator. This idea was first explored by Arthur C. Clarke in his 1979 novel The Fountains of Paradise, where he envisaged a mammoth tower reaching into space. The plan was to reach beyond the gravitational pull of Earth, thus via the space elevator enabling material and supplies to be delivered some 36,000km up in geosynchronous orbit."
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He notes that “the space elevator, along with the parallel idea of the ‘spaceline’ -- which proposed a tethered cable from the surface of the Moon back to Earth’s atmosphere -- certainly carries merit. However, the International Space Station, along with humankind’s passion to blast stuff from the ground upwards, have over time negated a need to develop such inventions. Then there’s the ‘space gun’, or ‘Verne gun’ (after novelist Jules Verne’s fictional firing structure), powering craft into space almost cannon-style, but with no circus-style safety net.”
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Research Note
by John Knapman
?Real progress is being made in developing improved manufacturing systems for graphene, the most suitable material for a space elevator, which means it’s a good time to explore some of the opportunities that it will open up.
There is a point on the space-elevator tether where the force of gravity is equal and opposite to the centrifugal force due to rotating about the earth. This is close to the geosynchronous altitude occupied by broadcast satellites in an orbit that maintains a steady position above a fixed point on the earth and is just under 36,000km from the earth’s surface. We call this point GEO.
We can build space stations and other structures there without adding to the load on the tether, because they are in microgravity. Using a space elevator, it will only take a month to lift to GEO a structure, the GEO station, similar in size to the International Space Station (ISS). The ISS is a remarkable human achievement; launched in 1998, it has been extended several times and now has a mass of 420 tonnes. (A tonne is a metric ton.) The GEO station will start with this mass after the first month and can be extended and renewed by at least 14 tonnes a day. People inside this GEO station will experience weightlessness, and it will be an ideal platform for research and development.
?At GEO, we can build in three dimensions: east-west (in the orbital direction), along the tether (above and below), and also north-south (Figure 1). The easiest direction in which to build is east-west, the orbital direction. Although there are satellites orbiting at this altitude, they are spaced hundreds of kilometers apart, so there is plenty of room to build even something huge like an interstellar star-ship (Figure 2) designed to carry a whole human colony.
Building in the other two dimensions requires more care because there is a need to maintain a balance between north and south and also between building above and below. More details will follow next month.
Solar System Space Elevators
by Peter Robinson
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Part 1: Introduction and the Inner Planets
?This is the first of a series of articles based on a presentation I gave at a British Interplanetary Society Space Elevator Symposium in November of 2017 titled “Solar System Space Elevators.”
The vast majority of ISEC publications and Studies are focused on the Earth Space Elevator, essential to escape the Earth’s gravity well economically and without environmental impact. This series of articles will NOT cover the Earth Elevator, but will focus on the potential for Space Elevators in other locations. Planets, moons and asteroids are all potential candidates for a Space Elevator, facilitating access without the use of rockets and perhaps enabling an interplanetary ‘slingshot’ network.
As of October 2017, there were 503,850 numbered bodies orbiting our Sun, of which 21,009 were named. This study will not cover them all, even though almost all of them could potentially host a Space Elevator!
The following discussion includes the results of analysis using a spreadsheet developed over several years. This includes a calculation of the Synchronous Altitude (equivalent to GEO on Earth) for various bodies, plus a more complex estimation of the required tether strength. I must stress that this tether material strength requirement can be little more than an order-of-magnitude estimate, given the many input variables and options, so I am simply quoting a ratio to the strength needed for the Earth. (See the April 2024 newsletter for a discussion of the tether strength requirement for an Earth Elevator)
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PART ONE - The Inner Planets (Mercury and Venus)
Image of Mercury (left) taken by MESSENGER. Image Credit: NASA/Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institute of Washington.
Simulated-color radar image of Venus (right) from Magellan data. Image Credit: NASA/JPL
MERCURY
Basic Numbers :
- Diameter = 4880 km
- Sidereal Rotation Period = 58.6 days
- Gravitational Parameter = 2.203E+13 m3/s2
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These numbers yield a Synchronous Altitude of 240,443 km and a tether specific strength of 18% of that required for the Earth. That strength requirement is still in excess of existing strong materials (such as Kevlar), but the synchronous altitude is the main problem. Any Apex Anchor would need to be well above that altitude, meaning that the tether would be over 300,000 km long with a mass of many thousands of tonnes. An even greater problem is the proximity of the Sun: tidal disturbances and high radiation levels would combine to make the construction of such a system highly impractical.
Note: Clarke’s First Law [1] means I must avoid using the word “impossible” !
A tether system that may be more practical on Mercury could be based on the rotating ‘Skyhook’ momentum exchange concept [2] [3]. This consists of a tether extending both ways from a satellite in a low orbit with Anchor masses at each end. The assembly is then rotated such that the anchor intersects with the planet's surface at near-zero relative velocity, enabling material transfer to/from the surface. Thrusters at the central mass are essential to maintain position to compensate for momentum transfer and other factors: system control and station-keeping would be significant challenges.
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VENUS
Basic Numbers :
- Diameter = 12104 km
- Sidereal Rotation Period = 243 days
- Gravitational Parameter = 3.25E+14 m3/s2
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These numbers yield a (nominal) Synchronous Altitude of 1,530,530 km and a tether specific strength of around 108% of that required for the Earth. This synchronous altitude is nominal and a very major problem, as it is outside the Sun-Venus Hill Sphere [4]. This means that the gravity force of the Sun would exceed that of Venus, making any stable orbit calculation a complex “Three-Body Problem.”
Also, the necessary tether length and mass would be highly impractical, at over 20 times the length of an Earth Elevator and requiring a material as strong or stronger. Dynamic tether control at a “Venus Port” on the surface of Venus would also be challenging, given surface temperatures and atmospheric conditions.
Given these issues, and despite [1], I believe I can safely say that a Venus Space Elevator is “impossible.”
BUT… that may be only true for an Elevator fixed to the surface of Venus.
A tether could conceivably be attached to some craft moving at a speed high in the Venusian atmosphere, well above the altitudes being considered for human aerial habitats, given that Venus could be circumnavigated in 24 hours at a speed of 1584 km/hr. Such a non-stop supersonic craft may be beyond today’s aircraft technology, and atmospheric drag on the tether itself would dictate a very high altitude, but it would only require a Space Elevator tether and Anchor mass of a similar scale to that being proposed for the Earth. It is difficult to imagine the economic justification for such a system, given that even the Earth elevator is only viable when being used to annually raise many thousands of tonnes of valuable cargo from the Earth’s surface.
Perhaps the only feasible tether/elevator system on Venus is a simple cable suspended from an aerostat (perhaps crewed) floating in the Venusian atmosphere. Research and other payloads could be lowered, perhaps even as far as the surface, subject to wind levels and system tolerance to the adverse temperature and chemistry. A simple cable would be the most practical, given that a fixed ribbon wide enough to allow climber operation would be too susceptible to the effects of wind shear.
In summary: neither Mercury nor Venus are suitable locations for a “proper” Space Elevator system, but simple variants could be worthy of further study.
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This concludes Part 1 of my “Solar System Space Elevators” series. Future installments will describe locations on which Space Elevators are far more feasible, starting with perhaps the least challenging of them all: Asteroids.
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References:
[1] For a description of Clarke’s First Law (and the 2nd and 3rd Laws) see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarke's_three_laws
[2] For a full description of the ‘Skyhook’ concept see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyhook_(structure) .
[3] For a description of a ‘Skyhook’ system for Luna prospecting see Paper “IAC-20-D4.5.6 ASU Design of Prospecting Satellite Segment”, P. Swan et al., IAC-2020 conference paper.
[4] For a description of the Hill Sphere concept see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_sphere .
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Tether Materials
by Adrian Nixon, Board Member, ISEC
Repairing a Graphene Space Elevator Tether
?Dear Reader, you will be familiar with potholes in roads.? The term may be a little dramatic when applied to the advanced material of the tether, but you’ll understand what we mean.
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We can expect a tether in operational use to be subject to wear during its lifetime.? An important question is, "Can a tether be repaired?"? For the purposes of this article, we will consider a tether made of graphene super laminate (GSL).?
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As you will know, GSL is made of layers of continuous sheets of graphene stacked as a van der Waals homostructure [1].? Figure 1 shows how this is different from graphite.?
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Regular readers will know that large-area graphene can already be manufactured at scales of up to a kilometre and at speeds of up to two metres per minute [2]. GSL has not been manufactured at these scales and speeds yet, but this is just a matter of time. This is why we are seriously considering GSL as the prime candidate tether material and thinking ahead about its properties and behaviour in use.
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In this case, we are anticipating what damage GSL material might experience and thinking about the potential for repair.? We can use data from both graphite and graphene in the academic literature to provide answers to some of these questions.
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?The literature tells us that graphene monolayers and laminate structures have the capacity to self-heal where the damage is small.? Heating the damaged area up to 600°C with an inert gas such as argon can allow the carbon atoms in both graphene and graphite to rearrange [3,4].
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Similarly, a dose of gamma radiation of 200 kGy can repair defects in damaged graphite by allowing the damaged regions to rearrange and self-organise back to graphene.? This means it should be possible to repair damaged regions of GSL with controlled smaller doses of gamma radiation [5].
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Where larger holes exist, rearranging existing carbon atoms in GSL might not be sufficient to repair the damage.? In this case, a variant of the chemical vapour deposition (CVD) process would provide the necessary carbon atoms to fill the void [6].? Figure 2 above illustrates the process.
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To summarise:? We can expect a tether made from graphene super laminate to experience damage when in place.? The damage will take the form of carbon atoms dislocated from the layered structure.? These kinds of defects will self-heal with the application of energy in the form of thermal and ionising radiation.? Larger vacancies, (potholes) where the carbon atoms have been removed, can also be repaired with a variant of the chemical vapour deposition process where additional carbon atoms will self-assemble to fill the voids.? So, proven mechanisms exist that can be employed to repair a space elevator tether made from graphene super laminate.
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References:
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1. Nixon. A., 2021. The graphene and graphite landscape: Indications of unexplored territory. Nixene Journal, 5(10), pp.9-20
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2. Nixon, A. (2021). 2021 August International Space Elevator Consortium Newsletter. [online] International Space Elevator Consortium. Available at: https://www.isec.org/space-elevator-newsletter-2021-august/#tether .
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3. Wang, Chong, and Yi-hong Ding. “Catalytically Healing the Stone–Wales Defects in Graphene by Carbon Adatoms.” J. Mater. Chem. A, vol. 1, no. 5, 2013, pp. 1885–1891, https://doi.org/10.1039/c2ta00736c .
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4. Jia, K., Su, Y., Chen, Y., Luo, J., Yang, J., Peng Lv, Zhang, Z., Zhu, H., Zhao, C. and Ye, T. (2015). Effects of defects and thermal treatment on the properties of graphene. Vacuum, 116, pp.90–95. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vacuum.2015.03.003 .
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5. Cataldo, F. (2000). A Raman study on radiation-damaged graphite by γ-rays. Carbon, 38(4), pp.634–636. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0008-6223(00)00007-5
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6. Ziyang Xiu, Ju, B., Duan, C., Fu, S., Zhang, N., Mei, Y., Liu, J., Feng, Y., Yang, W. and Kang, P. (2021). Study on the Evolution of Graphene Defects and the Mechanical and Thermal Properties of GNPs/Cu during CVD Repair Process. Materials, [online] 15(1), pp.130–130. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15010130 .
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Upcoming Events
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42nd International Space Development Conference
Sponsored by the National Space Society
Thursday, May 23rd, through Sunday, May 26th, 2024
Sheraton Gateway, Los Angeles, California, USA
Theme: “No Limits”
Space Elevator Technical Session
Saturday, May 25th, 2024
Theme: "Space Settlements Enabled by Transformational Permanent Infrastructures"
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7th International Conference on Tethers in Space
Sponsored by Lassonde School of Engineering, York University
and the International Academy of Astronautics
Sunday, June 2nd, through Wednesday, June 5th, 2024
Toronto, Canada
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8th Annual Nanotechnology Conference
Sponsored by the Royal Society of Chemistry
Sunday, August 25th, through Wednesday, August 28th, 2024
Hotel Arcotel Wimberger, Vienna, Austria
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Space Elevator Conference
Sponsored by the International Space Elevator Consortium and Slalom, Inc.
Saturday, September 7th, through Sunday, September 8th, 2024?
Downtown Chicago, Illinois, USA
75th International Astronautical Congress
Sponsored by the International Astronautical Federation (IAF)
Theme: “Responsible Space for Sustainability”
Monday, October 14th, through Friday, October 18th, 2024
Milan, Italy
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76th International Astronautical Congress
Sponsored by the International Astronautical Federation (IAF)
Monday, September 29th, through Friday, October 3rd, 2025
International Convention Centre, Sydney, Australia
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77th International Astronautical Congress
Sponsored by the International Astronautical Federation (IAF)
Theme: “The World Needs More Space”
Proposed Dates: October 5th through October 9th, 2026
Antalya, Turkey
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