Invisible Beliefs Create Visible Facts: Women in the hospitality industry based on glass ceiling and work-life balance
Women in the hospitality industry have invisible walls that need to be broken. Unfortunately, gender discrimination still exists against them. However, work-life balance is also an emerging topic for women in the hospitality industry since the glass ceiling impacts limit women's opportunities. This research aims to understand the impact of work-life balance and whether its role plays a more significant role than the glass ceiling effect on women in the hospitality industry. This research will contribute new perspectives related to women's challenges in the hospitality industry. Hence, hospitality organizations can enhance their offers for women. Moreover, new findings will also enrich the hospitality research field about the glass ceiling and work-life balance topics.
Hospitality is a large, global, and diverse industry that covers different kinds of employment opportunities itself (Irgashevich, 2022). Since the hospitality industry mosaic brings all different components together, such as different cultures, languages, genders, races, countries, and backgrounds, people are the most crucial ones that hospitality brings. What makes the people unique is that people have been playing a pivotal role in the hospitality industry for a long time, either as an employee or a customer and the hospitality industry brings all people together in one place. However, even though the hospitality industry is enormous, global, and diverse, it is also highly "gendered" (Dashpher, 2020). Although women create half of the hospitality workforce, the sector is discriminated by gender within the frame horizontally and vertically; women have lower status positions, salaries, and opportunities than men (Daspher, 2020; Mooney & Ryan, 2009). Moreover, studies reported that gender inequality exists in the most three common areas in the hospitality industry. These are compensation, career advancement, and training opportunities (Remington ; Kitterlin-Lynch, 2018). Women workers create only 38% of management roles and 33% of senior management / director roles based on McKinsey & Company's survey results. Furthermore, gender discrimination and glass ceiling beliefs bring negative causes for hospitality organizations and the hospitality
industry itself. According to Lathabhavan (2019), there is a direct principle mechanism that glass ceiling beliefs affect performance, and turnover intention is work engagement. In addition, they found that there are direct effects of glass ceiling beliefs on performance and turnover intention, and there are equivalently sized indirect effects through work engagement. Additionally, there are so many challenges women face in the hospitality industry, but one of them is way more concerning: work-life balance. "Work–life balance is the individual perception that work and nonwork activities are compatible and promote growth following an individual's current life priorities" (Gragnano et al., 2020). For example, a woman who wants to be promoted to a higher position would naturally spend more time and attention on her work, which will affect her family life (Cooke, 2013; Zhao et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2021). According to Grzywacz & Carlson (2007), work-family conflict causes occupational burnout, stress, decreased health, and a lower level of organizational commitment. The hospitality industry needs to take some actions to improve the working conditions and ensure that the hospitality industry is seen as a positive career choice and can offer desirable and long-term career opportunities for all employees and for women in specifically (Dashper, 2020). It is essential to understand that strengthening women in the hospitality industry is vital because women represent most of the worldwide hospitality workforce. This representation is accepted as a development in some countries (Morgan & Pritchard, 2019). This literature review aims to understand the impact of work-life balance and whether its role plays a more significant role than the glass ceiling affects women in the hospitality industry. This literature review will contribute new perspectives related to women's challenges in the hospitality industry. Hence, hospitality organizations can enhance their offers for women. Moreover, new findings will also help to expand the topic in the hospitality research area. Thus, this literature review aims to explore the following research questions:
Is the glass ceiling still the biggest challenge for women in the hospitality industry?
2. Is work-life balance more impacting women in the hospitality industry than the glass
ceiling?
3. Is the landscape of the hospitality industry ready to hire more women by providing the flexibility to provide work-life balance?
The following section gives a brief account of the literature discussing social role theory, role congruity theory and their relationship with women in the hospitality industry, the impact of the glass ceiling, and the relationship between the glass ceiling and work-life balance; Section 3 explains methods; section 4 discusses implications and conclusions.
Social role theory and gender stereotypes
According to social role theory, men and women are primarily discriminated from each other within the frame of social roles within their society. Eagly's (1987) social role theory also argues that labor is gendered, so gender division shapes and characterizes a society. Gender stereotypes cause this gender division of labor. Men and women have some behavioral differences, and these differences create cultural stereotypes about gender. These stereotypes put some social roles we taught or transferred to young people. Unfortunately, males and females are defined and limited by gender stereotypes. For this reason, their roles are limited based on their sex. Gender stereotyping feeds gender inequality directly (Council of Europe, 2018).
According to The United States'; Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), 15.11 million people are working in the hospitality and tourism industry in the U.S. as of December 2021. The number of employees has been increasing each year consistently since 2009 (Statista, 2022). Women create 55.5% of the hospitality workforce, while men create 44.5% of it (Diederich, 2022; Croes et al., 2021; Leisure & Hospitality, 2022). Additionally, Castell Project (2019) reported that even though plenty of job opportunities are available for women, they have minimal upper-level positions. 40% of supervisory, less than 20% of general management positions, and only 5-8% of corporate board positions are held by women in the hospitality workforce (Baum & Cheung, 2015; Chen et al., 2021). Statistics indicate that the low representation of women in executive positions in the hospitality industry is an indisputable fact that we call "gender inequality" (Morgan & Pritchard, 2019).
To explain gender inequality, tourism scholars used the "glass ceiling" metaphor to represent the invisible barriers that keep women and minorities from rising above a certain level of positions (Sanggyeong Je et al., 2022; Jackson, 2001). Moreover, OECD (2021) stated that about 60% of the gender pay gap results from a glass ceiling. Unfortunately, the hospitality industry still has gender inequality problems, and due to the persistent glass ceiling, the hospitality industry has lost many skilled women who have vision and passion (Dashper,
2020). According to Diekman & Goodfriend (2006), societal expectations shape how men and women act and what is desired of them. Thus, the personality traits of individuals; and their treats are judged and confirmed within the frame of perceived requirements of their gender roles. Due to societal expectations, men's leadership is considered more important than female leadership. Moreover, female leadership seen as negative and threatening (Eagly & Karau, 2002; Chen et al., 2021). Furthermore, societal expectations encumber moral responsibilities to women. For instance, women need to be caregivers and they need to put their family first and children over work (Ladge & Little, 2019; Chen et al., 2021). Since the hospitality industry based on long working hours during the weekdays or weekends, women have struggling to balance their work and life (Remington & Kitterlin-Lynch, 2018; Chen et al., 2021). Chen et al., (2021), stated that women who cannot separate enough time for their families, feel guilty because separating a time for family is one of the duty of women based on societal expectations. Additionally, gender stereotypes create negativity on women leaders while men leaders have positive leadership traits (Xiong et al., 2022).
Impact of glass ceiling on women in hospitality: Gender pay gap, career advancement and training opportunities
Remington & Kitterlin-Lynch (2018) highlighted that glass ceiling shows its impact in three areas. In this part, we are going to explain what extend does the glass ceiling impact compensation, career advancement and training opportunities.
Compensation
Kapoor et al., (2021) stated that gender stereotypes and inflexibility of job roles strengthen the wage gap which has a direct relationship with the glass ceiling since it strengthens the glass ceiling. Many researchers reported that women's compensation is way lower than men (Remington & Kitterlin-Lynch, 2018; Chen et al., 2021). Unfortunately, the gender wage gap is still persistent. Equal Pay Day (2022) statistics stated that women make 83 cents for every dollar a man makes. According to BLS (2021), women are paid about 17% less than men. Quinyx, workforce management firm revealed their data as "deskless workers" on 16th of March, 2022. According to Quinyx, only 27% of women employees are comfortable discussing pay rises or wage disparities with managers.
Career Advancement
Although women workforce creates the majority of hospitality industry, plenty of job opportunities in higher positions are available for them (Remington & Kitterlin-Lynch, 2017; McKinsey & Company, 2018; Castell Project, 2019; Quinyx, 2022). According to Quinyx data (2022), only 25% of women employees say that their manager has guided them for their promotion, and only 18% of their manager has guided them as mentors. However, this percentage hits to 30% and 25% for male workers, when it comes to mentorship. Moreover, Quinyx (2022) revealed that only 46% of women employees believe that there are limited numbers of work opportunities based on their skills. "Many women are employed in management roles but the senior positions which are usually well paid and more flexible still tend to be occupied by men" ; said Aine Morris who is Managing Director of the Bristol Food Union. In addition to career advancement, organizations need to take care of their structure since most of the hospitality organizations are gendered which leads directly glass ceiling. According to Acker (1990), organizations tend to be gendered, where the discrimination between male and female describes the roles and responsibilities. Hence, male and female create the structure of the organization; women are always the one who faces with gender inequality.
Training Opportunities
Invisible barriers limit women in the hospitality not only other areas, limit them in the training area as well. Most of the women cannot have the training opportunities since they are discriminated by their gender. Since they are offered less salary, less promotion, it directly impacts the training opportunity as well. "If she will not be promoted, what is the matter if she learn / know more about the job?"
Relationship between glass ceiling and work-life balance
Hospitality industry makes you sacrifice time of yours by having long working hours. Quinyx (2022), revealed horrific result that 60% of women employees have worked while sick because they could not afford to take time off. However, there is a dramatic difference when it comes to men with only %49. Due to inflexible hours, women are not able to separate their personal and professional time. Taking time off, working long hours, traveling for work and during the weekends are most related to work-life balance challenges that women face in the hospitality industry (Fathy & Youssif, 2020; Chen et al., 2021).
Related Themes with Literature Review
According to this literature review, work-life balance, gender gap wage (gender gap pay), sexualization of women and mentoring were examined.
Work-Life Balance (WLB) in the hospitality industry and its impact on women
Related to this literature review, Liu et al., (2021) examine women’s WLB in the hospitality industry and its impact on organizational commitment level.) They studied women’s work-life balance in the hospitality industry and compare women’s organizational commitment under different levels of work-life balance by evaluating whether women’s work-life balance and organizational commitment are associated with their sociodemographic characteristics (i.e., age, education, working years, and position level. According to results, WLB has an important impact on organizational commitment. Additionally, there is an important relationship between women’s sociodemographic characteristics, work-life balance, and organizational commitment.
Additionally, Chen et al., (2021) also examined WLB themes that appeared in the result of the study which gave an insight and idea why women might not advance to higher managerial levels. Hospitality industry requires work long hours, weekends, and holidays. Current results showed that when organizations are not able to give flexibility time off and do not adapt a WLB, women can’t choose higher positions since they are aware that they will not be able meet expectations of family obligations which will make women feel guilty just because they don’t meet the social norm expectation. Moreover, Doherty’s (2004) study indicated that working long hours and weekends was a major problem. Therefore, findings are still consistent today.
Gregnano et al., (2020) studied the importance of other nonworking domains in the work-life balance with a specific focus on health. Furthermore, the importance of the effects of the work–family balance (WFB) and the work–health balance (WHB) on job satisfaction was investigated in this study. 4 variables were studied which are age, gender, parental status, and work ability. Gender examined in the WLB literature because every gender has different levels of work-family balance. When family responsibilities taken into consideration, women have more responsibilities than men. This study also stated other studies highlighted that women do care about their families more
than men. Therefore, this study supported that there is a stronger effect of work-family balance on job satisfaction and negative emotional responses for women.
According to Gregnano et al., (2020) work-to-family conflict on job satisfaction was greater for women in 4th hypothesis. The reason is women are likely to evaluate family as more central in their lives than men because of widespread cultural norms and gender-differentiated values. Moreover, study supported that findings are consistent and valid. This study also indicates that work has a big impact of worker’s health life and the changes in the labor force has an influence on worker’s health life as well. This influence might reflect to the work-life
balance directly. Furthermore, this study provided the evidence that work-life balance is not related to age as previously believed. However, it is related with the health condition which might be influenced by the changes of the labor force. By time, WLB has started to change into work-health balance (WHB).
Relationship between WLB and Mentoring programs for women in hospitality
As it mentioned above for WLB theme (1), hospitality is gendered and women in hospitality industry has encountered with invisible barrier, which we define as glass ceiling. This invisible barrier limits women and they can’t reach managerial positions. Cultural expectations, social norms and morals literally define women and women are expected to be family-oriented, mother and wife. However, this situation got worst and turned into a sexualization of hospitality work (Gebbels et al., 2020). That means women are objectified as sexual beings. For example, Adkins (1995) indicated that attractiveness is one of the condition
for recruiting female hotel workers. Morgan Pritchard (2019) explained that especially receptionists and waitresses, who are often expected to present themselves and interact with the (male) customers in sexualized ways, thus contributing to the normalization of sexual harassment in the hospitality sector. Lyness & Judiesch (2014) stated that mentoring is one of the strategy that gives an opportunity to progress women to senior positions by including WLB beside of other strategies. Mentoring plays important role to provide gender equality and individual support for the mentees (Dashper, 2020). Hence, there is a parallel relationship between WLB and mentoring since every gender has different levels of work-family balance as it is explained above. Findings are consistent and according to Dashper (2020) the findings illustrate the persistent gendered obstacles women experience as they try and negotiate careers in
masculinist hospitality organizations. Idealization of women based on gender norms
According to UNICEF (2020), gender norms are a subset of social norms that relate specifically to gender differences. They are informal, deeply entrenched and widely held beliefs about gender roles, power relations, standards or expectations that govern human behaviors and practices in a particular social context and at a particular time. They are ideas or ‘rules’ about how girls and boys and women and men are expected to be and to act. Unfortunately, women are expected to be an ideal women in society. Therefore, women have always conflict between their private life and work life. Idealization of women, ideal woman turned into sexualization of women in hospitality industry as it is highlighted in the relationship between WLB and Mentoring programs for women in hospitality (2). Sexualization of women in hospitality industry is one of the common topic that has been examined and related with harassment as well. Types of harassment depends on the changes in environmental conditions.
One of the biggest example is COVID-19. For instances Time’s Up Foundation (2020) published a research titled “take off your mask so I know how much to tip you”. According to findings of Time’s Up Foundation (2020) many workers report a dramatic increase in sexual harassment during the pandemic, which is compounded by having to ask customers to comply with COVID-19 safety protocols. Comments by male customers indicate that they feel entitled to demand that workers remove their protective gear, exposing them to the risk of
illness or death, in order to obtain the tips they need to make up their base wage. As you can understand, concept of idealization changed into sexualization by time. Gender inequality and how gender seen by people, even society is very important.
Gender Gap Wage (Gender Gap Pay)
One of the related theme with women in the hospitality industry is Gender Gap Wage (GPW) which is one of the cause of gender discrimination. Since hospitality industry is gendered. Main reason of GGW is women tend to prefer job with lower salary since those jobs provide more flexible (Winfield, 2022). Gender inequality is one of the cause of GGW since women are judged by social and gender norms. Russen et al., (2021) highlighted one finding of Carvalho et al., (2014); stated that women are offered lower salaries by hospitality and
tourism companies that offer more permanent contracts to them.
Additionally, Cotilla & Campos-Soria (2021) highlighted that many previous studies examined and proved that women receiving lower wages comparing to men and this is because of discriminatory grounds. Moreover, women are getting rewarded less than men. The study analyzed the factors that determine the causes of gender wage differences in the Spanish hospitality industry. Even though research is based on a Spain, research gives a different perspective about GPW and proves that this issue has been going on for a while.
According to Cotilla & Campos-Soria (2021) there is a positive approach and trend for men through wage distribution which is specifically higher wage. Furthermore, results showed that the main reason of this GGW is the existence of the glass ceiling. Moreover, when we look GGW issue today, results are still same and we still have GGW issue in the hospitality industry. According to Gender Pay Gap in Hospitality report published by WiHT, the average pay gap actually increased for the first time in three years from 5.4% to 7.7%. It found the average hospitality, travel and leisure company had 58% men in the highest-paid 25% of the workforce. This compared to 54% women in the lowest paid 25% of the organization.
IMPLICATIONS & CONCLUSIONS
To compare the impact of the glass ceiling and work-life balance on women in the hospitality industry, this study will conduct in-depth interviews with the women participants who are working in the hotel currently. The reason that I wanted to compare the impact of the glass ceiling and work-life balance is that women do not tend to accept hospitality job offers anymore. However, there is no research related with this topic. In addition to that, researchers have been still focusing on glass ceiling specifically. Many articles have mentioned the roots of the glass ceiling on women in the hospitality industry, and some articles have studied about work-life balance and its impact on women in the hospitality industry. On the other hand, studies are still not enough for the impact of work-life balance which is trend topic now. Moreover, there is no study that searches for whether the impact of the glass ceiling is high or work-life balance on women within the frame of the women workforce in the hospitality industry. Women still have struggled to achieve their career goals because of societal barriers, which takes us to social role and role congruity theories. Due to glass ceiling beliefs related to gender status, women cannot welcomed in higher positions, or they cannot earn as men do (Clevenger & Singh, 2013). Women need to make a double effort to have the higher positions, higher salary, and flexibility.
Additionally, Chen et al., (2021) stated that women have struggled with societal expectations. Thus, women feel under pressure to balance their personal, work and family life by trying to ignore stereotypes. Since the hospitality industry is male-dominant, women are underestimated most of the time in the hospitality industry which effects their leadership. There is a direct relationship between leadership and work-life balance as well but gender discrimination impacts both of them. Thus, the hospitality industry needs to focus on if the women hold leadership positions, and how they can provide that flexibility / work-life balance to women. The real question is, is the hospitality industry ready for hiring for women? These questions need to be discussed for the hospitality industry and hospitality research field needs to conduct more studies on them.
According to my readings, I have also found out that there is no global study conducted for glass ceiling and work-life balance as well as well the relationship between them haven't discussed sufficiently. Studies that I have encountered either belongs to one country or region of a country. Moreover, "gender gap" switched into "gender pay gap" specifically in the hospitality research field. However, gender discrimination should not specificized and switch into a "pay gap" only. Furthermore, Clevenger & Singh (2013) highlighted that there is not enough governmental statistics related with glass ceiling in the hospitality industry. We look into the academia and still lack of governmental statistics related with glass ceiling. Government needs to support and provide data to the hospitality industry. Women need to be supported by hospitality organizations which can be done with an increase of mentorship in the hotels. Human resource practices play an important role in order to break the existence of the glass ceiling. H.R. departments need to give more leadership opportunities to women in the hospitality, and they need to provide more training opportunities as well. Departments need to adapt flexibility by coordinating with H.R. so that women can participate more in the hospitality
industry. Additionally, people need to understand what glass ceiling is. Most of the people is not aware
that if they have experienced glass ceiling. Hence, HR departments can give gender-related training to raise the awareness of it. In addition to that, H.R. departments consider their organization's structure since most of the hospitality organizations are "gendered". This literature review aims to understand the impact of work-life balance and whether its role plays a more significant role than the glass ceiling affects women in the hospitality industry. As you can see, there are many themes that have been studied and examined. Mentioned themes have still impact on women in hospitality industry and they have changed and shaped regarding the changes in industry. Previous findings and recent findings are still protect their validity. Gender inequality has been an issue for women in hospitality, yet still is. However, hospitality and tourism organizations try to practice diversity and mentoring programs to prevent gender inequality and to create healthy work environment and organization culture. We see more women in leadership positions in hospitality industry but still not enough. Since women have different nature than men, women play more than a one role. You can see women in business as a leader or as a worker; you can see women in home as a mother or as a wife. It is not only the existence of glass ceiling, but also a flexibility issue for women in hospitality anymore. Most of the women prefer to work in lower paid jobs since they provide more flexibility as I mentioned above. There is a strict sequence. When glass ceiling, with other words gender discrimination can push women to lower senior positions and lower paid jobs, WLB can be one of the reason too. Therefore, we can see the strong relationship between WLB and glass ceiling.
Another perspective of mine is, WLB might not be provided to women in hospitality, just because hospitality and tourism organizations or management tend to discriminate women as well. I do believe that company culture and human resources place a significant role to prevent glass ceiling. Slightly, I see that gender discrimination has started to turn into a WLB issue by over time. I would like to remind following research questions that should be examined:
1. Is the glass ceiling still the biggest challenge for women in the hospitality industry?
2. Is work-life balance more impacting women in the hospitality industry than the glass
ceiling?
3. Is the landscape of the hospitality industry ready to hire more women by providing the flexibility to provide work-life balance?
To bring an expanded perspective in order to see the change, hospitality research field should focus on new changes. For example, how true to be called this gender discrimination since we have LGBT existence. Some people don’t define their genders, which we called “non-binary”. How about their acceptance in the hospitality industry? Moreover, WLB theme got significant then ever after post-COVID19. This literature review aims to expand previous studies and to explore the causes of change over time. Hospitality and tourism organizations can start to embrace the new era and they can create new practices that embraces all people. I do believe that “gender” will remove in the future. Organizations can adopt diversity programs that include LGBT community. Plus, WHB may be potential them for future and we can see it more beside of WLB. Hospitality industry needs to create a flexible environment or new jobs that provide more flexibility to women.
Written by B. Gizem Kunt
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