An Introduction to Islam

And the angel of Jehovah said unto Hajar (Hagar), I will greatly multiply thy seed, that it shall not be numbered for multitude. And the angel of Jehovah said unto her, Behold, thou art with child, and shalt bear a son; and thou shalt call his name Ishmael, because Jehovah hath heard thy affliction.[1]

An Introduction to Islam

Islam emerged in the 7th century as a comprehensive religion of peace, wholeness, and submission to God. A century later, Islam exploded throughout Syria/Palestine, Iraq, Iran, Egypt, and plague distressed North Africa and Spain.[2] While carrying Muhammad’s revelations to new lands was part of the Arab conquest, the spread of Islam did not include speedy conversions, as there was little or no pressure to adopt the faith.[3] Muhammad’s first Muslim community in Medina counted Arabs, Jews, and Christians as equal citizens. The Prophet taught that Muslims, Christians, and Jews should be free to follow what God commanded them in their holy books. The Qur’an declares, “Let there be no compulsion in religion,”[4] and “To you your religion, and to me mine.”[5] According to the Qur’an, people are not to be judged by how they label themselves or others, but by their beliefs and deeds; “Certainly, those who believed, the Jews, the Christians, and the Sabaens, all those who have believed in God and in the last Day of Judgment and who have done good – they will have their reward from God.”[6]

The term “Muslim” is universal, and that the Qur’an does not restrict it to those who followed the revelations given to Muhammad. Dr. Louay Fatoohim, who converted from Christianity to Islam, claims that “Muhammad’s message was a continuation of the previous messages, in the same way that Jesus’ message continued from Moses’ message.”[7] What distinguishes Muhammad from the other nabi (prophets) is that he was the last Prophet of Allah.

Although it is debatable, throughout history “Christians have for the most part believed that Muslims worship the same God as Christians and Jews.”[8] According to Volf, “Thomas Aquinas and Martin Luther held this view, to name just two examples of seminal theologians from two different streams of Christianity.”[9] Muslims consider themselves to be children of Ar-Rahim (a translation of the Hebrew name for God which means “Lord of the Worlds”), or more commonly Allah (which is Arabic for God),[10] through Ibrahim (Abraham) and Ismail (Ishmael). Muslims have traditionally viewed the Yohound (Jews) and the Masiheyin (Christians) as distinct branches of the same religious family tree, and refer to them as Ahl al Ketab (“People of the Book”).[11] 

In Islam: there is only one God, God is the creator of everything, God was alone before creation, God is the Supreme Ruler of the universe, God is unique and dissimilar to anything, God is subtle and out of reach of any of the senses, everything and everyone exists in submission to God whether by choice or force.[12] While Christians skirmish with concepts like the divinity of Jesus and the Trinity, God is simple in Islam, and the purpose for existence is simply to love and serve Allah. Islam maintains that Allah is not “a number of persons in one, one person in multiple manifestations, one being in different aspects, one in more than one mode, or such designation that Christianity has developed [to support the doctrine of the Trinity].”[13] Muslims do not visualize God, but describe God using 99 names which are derived from God’s attributes. Muslims inspire to be “like” God by actualizing Allah’s names through their actions.

Before the emergence of Islam, Arabs believed in Allah but also believed in other lower deities and intermediaries who would bring them closer to Allah. Idols made to honor these lower deities were considered Allah’s offspring.[14] Similar to its rejection of the divinity of Jesus, the Qur’an rejected this polytheistic tradition.

 

Muhammad and the Qur’an  

Muslims trust that the angel Gabriel delivered Allah’s final revelation, the Qur’an (the recitation), in Arabic to God’s final Prophet Muhammad from 610 – 622. In the spirit of Islamic Prophethood, where the Prophet mirrors God and is chosen by God as a Messenger: when Abraham, the common root of religious unity, received his message of justice from God, the din (religion) of Moses was born to bring the “will of God” to all nations, when Jesus received his message from God concerning the spirit of the law, the religion of Jesus was born, and when Muhammad, the Seal/Last of the Prophets, received his message of universalism to sum up and finalize the word of God, the religion of Islam was “revealed’ to the world. In the Qur’an, Allah asserts that the Prophet Muhammad brought nothing necessarily new; “Naught is said to thee, oh Muhammad, but what already was said to the messengers before thee.”[15] Muslims regard Abraham as a Prophet of Allah and the first Muslim, because he surrendered to God. The Qur’an refers to Abraham as hanif (the true in faith) and emphasizes that he was “neither a Jew nor a Christian.”[16]

Although Muslims attempt to emulate Muhammad, it is inaccurate to refer to Islam as the religion of Muhammad, as the Qur’an never identifies it as such. While the Hebrew Bible refers to God as the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the Qur’an does not refer to Allah as the God of any particular Prophet. In a non-exclusive sprit, Islam teaches that all God’s Prophets, preached the message of Islam in progression according to place and time.[17] The Qur’an commands all Muslims to recognize the divine message of all previous Prophets and to make no distinctions among them.

Muhammad started receiving his revelations when he was 40 years old after praying and fasting for three days on the mountain Ja bal-an-nur. Muslims consider Muhammad to be the “promised comforter”[18] whom Jesus spoke of in the New Testament. Muslims do not consider the Prophet Muhammad to be divine, but a perfect example for humanity and the mouthpiece of Allah.

In Mecca, Muhammad implored the people to abandon polytheism, and although some converted, the Meccan authorities persecuted Muhammad and the Mu’minuun (believers) which were mostly women, slaves, and children. Muhammad was nearly stoned to death while seeking asylum from the Meccans. While rue had a running for his life, Muhammad had a vision known as the isra or mi’raj where he was carried from Mecca to Jerusalem and led all the Prophets in prayer. During this vision, Muhammad was led through the seven heavens by the angel Gabriel. Before the vision ended, Muhammad went alone into the presence of Allah and received 50 daily prayers, which were eventually reduced to five at the request of Moses.[19] As the news of this revelation spread, the persecution of the Muslims intensified. In 622, Muhammad and the other Muslims immigrated to Medina formerly known as Yathrib. It was here that Muhammad established his religious and political authority.

Muslims view the Qur’an, which contains 144 suras (chapters) and 6,236 ayat (verses), as the final revelation and literal Word of Allah which was revealed to Muhammad. Given that Muhammad could not read or write, scribes inscribed his revelations on sheep skins, bones, and leaves, which much like the teachings of Jesus, were not assembled until after the Prophet died. Abu Bakr (d. 634), a companion of Muhammad who was selected as emir (commander) following Muhammad’s death, allowed the Qur’an to be written in different dialects, however later Muslim leader Uthman ibn Affan declared that all duplications must be composed in the Prophet’s dialect.[20]

The Qur’an is believed to be arranged according to the guidance of the Holy Spirit from 644 – 656. The earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, have historically been viewed as instructions to correct errors believed to have crept into the Tawrat (Torah) and Injil (Christian Gospels) – namely rescuing Jesus from the “Trinitarian travesty,”[21] and restoring his status as a Prophet and illuminator of the Divine, rather than the Redeemer in Pauline Christianity. Baptism, Eucharist, and the structure of the Christian Church were also considered to be in error and a form of shirk (idolatry).[22] 

Most Muslims believe the Qur’an is not a scripture for scrutiny by critics, but recitation by believers.[23] Reciting the Qur’an is considered by many to be equal to participating in the Christian Eucharist. Muslims attempt to have the Qur’an “come into their hearts” much like Christians attempt to have Jesus “come into their hearts.” Similar to their Jewish relatives, Muslims practice circumcision of male children and are prohibited from eating pork products; all meat must come from herbivorous animals slaughtered in the name of Allah.[24] Muslims and Jews do not believe in the Christian concept of original sin, and therefore they see no need for a savior or atonement.[25] The Qur’an emphasizes bodily resurrection and hell as a result of kufr (disbelief).[26]

Muslims do not consider the New Testament a literal revelation from God, as it took three centuries to form the official Canon – the list of widely accepted books which were compiled primarily to refute Christian heresies concerning the divinity of Jesus.[27] Muslims claim the Qur’an was “collected”, while the New Testament was “edited.” Muslim scholars consider the New Testament to be on par with the Hadith. The Epistles present substantial challenges to Muslims, as these were letters to individuals (Philemon) and to churches (Romans, Galatians…), not the “actual words” of God.[28]  The Epistle of James, considered “straw” by Christian reformer Martin Luther,[29] has fascinated Muslim readers for centuries, as it is believed to have been written by the half brother of Jesus.

Muslims point out that Christianity has been defined by the words, acts, and wishes of authors outside the Gospels. Many Christian theologians agree that the Apostle Paul and other unknown authors were influential in defining Christianity. This is a grave concern for Muslims, who believe that these authors corrupted the message and mission of the Prophet Jesus. Muslims maintain that the same accusation can be made of the Hebrew Bible. Muslims claim that the credibility of the Islamic faith is increased because it rests solely on the Prophethood of Muhammad and the credibility of the Qur’an. The Sunnah (literally, the “trodden path,” the collected practices of the Prophet Muhammad, often referred to as the “living Qur’an”) and the Hadith (literally, “the reports,” the collections of sayings, actions, and personal characteristics of the Prophet and his companions which are often referred to in issues dealing with Islamic jurisprudence) are also considered “perfect” but not inerrant by many Muslims.[30]

Within Islam, beliefs and practices are often based on the consensus of the faith community over generations. As in Christianity, Islam may be more appropriately called “Islams” as there are multiple understandings of the religion. The Sunnis (or Ahl as-Sunnah, “people of the tradition of Muhammad”) are the largest group, and until 1924 they were led by caliphs who were elected or selected by the whole community to serve as political and often military leaders. Shia Muslims follow leaders that they believe are direct descendents of the Prophet Muhammad.[31] For the Sufi, love is at the very heart of being; the whole cosmos vibrates and pulsates with love which eternally flows from the very heart of God. Sufis respect Muslim law, but attempt to not be trapped by religious legalism. 

The Five Pillars of Islam

The Five Pillars of Islam, which come from the Hadith, include: shahadah (worship of God alone, comparable to a Christian creed), performing salat (prayer), zakat (giving and acts of charity), participating in the hajj (the pilgrimage to the Kaba in Mecca, believed by Muslims to be the first house of God, built by Adam and rebuilt by Abraham, during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah) at least once in a lifetime if affordable, and sawm (fasting, by every Muslim over 14 years of age, from food, drink, and sex from dawn to dusk to express gratitude and dependence on Allah and atone for past sins – pregnant women and the sick are exempt) during Ramadan (a celebration of the first month that the revelations were given to the Prophet Muhammad).

The central pillar of Islam is tawhid, a strict monotheistic confession of faith, “La ilah illa Allah, Muhammad rasoolu Allah” (“I testify that there is no god/ilah/deity but Allah/God, and Muhammad is the Prophet/Messenger of God.”). This testimony is the fundamental foundation for all Muslim beliefs and practices. It is repeated in daily prayers and by non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam.

Muslims prostrate themselves in ritual prayer five times a day as an act of voluntary submission to Allah. This practice is intended to focus the mind on Allah and remind nas (forgetful man) of his role on earth. Prayers are generally performed in a mosque, which also serves a community center.[32] Men and women are separated during prayer. Mosques and many homes contain a Qibla to point the way to Mecca.[33] Prayers are recited in Arabic and consist of verses from the Qur’an.

Prayers are led by an imam (which literally means “to stand in front”). Imams are considered the most knowledgeable and pious members of the community. They are not ordained and most serve on a voluntary basis. Islam has no formal priesthood. More often than not, imams are not experts in Islamic jurisprudence, which causes significant confusion in Western courts when imams are called upon to serve as “experts.”  The Prophet said that every man is an imam to his own family and every woman is an imam to her children. Women can serve as a public imam if they are leading women or men who are in close relationship with them, but as in Christianity, female leadership is rare and often controversial.

While some Christians restrict much of their faith to the private realm, Muslims have never made this distinction and consider Islam a way of life – controlling how they dress, what they eat, and how they use money. The ultimate goal of Islam is to create a moral and just society in which individuals are free to pursue a spiritual life. With an emphasis on “works righteousness,” Islam considers economics a justice-building spiritual discipline. Muslims who are head of households are obliged to give 2.5 percent of their accumulated wealth – excluding personal possessions such as homes, cars and clothing – to meet the needs of the poor, orphans, and widows, and to promote in the proliferation of Islam. The mandate of zakat is self-enforced. Zakat is not used to build mosques or pay salaries (although it may be used to pay those who collect and distribute zakat). Sadaqah (voluntary charity) is charitable giving above the “debt” of zakat. Islam urges sadaqah by maintaining that those with more than they need “owe the needy”; because abundance is a “trust from God’s bounty,” as all wealth belongs to God.[34]  

Jesus in Islam

A Christian evaluation of Islam reveals a radical revision of the orthodox Constantinopolitan image of Jesus. Nevertheless, for many 7th century Christians in Syria/Palestine and Egypt, who were persecuted by the Byzantine Empire for being Monophysites – Christians who held that Christ had only one nature, as his humanity was absorbed by his divinity – Islamic rule offered hope and an invitation to justice, and religious freedom.[35] Christians in Iraq were likely Nestorians who believed in a form of dyophysitism which taught that Christ had two natures, human and divine which were loosely united. The Nestorians were also considered heretics because they refused to accept Mary as theotokos (the bringer of God). Furthermore, their teaching was similar to the heresy of adoptionism, which taught that the man Christ was later “adopted” by God as God’s Son. When the Prophet Muhammad received his revelations, he consulted with a Christian friend to determine whether his words were from God. According to American Systematic Theologian Dr. Josiah Young, the friend, who in all probability was a follower of Sabellianism, declared a heresy by the Council of Nicaea in the third century, agreed that Jesus was a human Prophet, and not divine.

As in Christianity, Isa (Jesus) is considered Al-Masih (the Messiah) in Islam;[36] however, Islamic teachings exclude Christology and reject the notion that God would be embodied in human flesh.[37] Surrah 112:3 declares, “He (Allah) neither gives birth, nor is He given in birth.”  “He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; and there is none like unto Him.”[38] Muslims believe in the virgin birth of Jesus;[39] nevertheless, Muslims do not believe in the incarnation of God through Jesus and argue that the servanthood of Jesus disclaims his Sonship, as the term ‘abd (servant or slave) cannot be applied to divinity. In the Qur’an, Jesus spoke in infancy, showed paranormal precociousness in infancy, created figures of birds from clay and then gave them life, healed the sick and blind, and raised the dead. Islam honors Jesus for his perfect obedience as a Prophet of Allah. In Surrah 19, “The child Jesus said, ‘I am the servant of God. He blessed me with the Book and appointed me a Prophet.’” Muslims argue that the New Testament concurs with this understanding as the crowd in Matthew 21:11 proclaimed, “This is Jesus the Prophet of Nazareth of Galilee.”

Muslims do not believe Jesus was crucified. Surrah 4:157-158 maintains that when the crowd came to capture Jesus, he walked unseen through the angry throng and went into hiding. Judas, mistaken to be Jesus, was seized by the guards and crucified as atonement for his betrayal. After the anxieties of the authorities diminished, Jesus emerged from hiding, visited the tomb of Judas, greeted Mary Magdalene, and then appeared to his disciples. Muslims believe Jesus, similar to Abraham, was ultimately raptured into heaven where he is waiting to return as judge on the Day of Judgment.[40]      

Notably absent in Islamic thought are the teachings of Jesus as the Christ, his announcements of the Kingdom of God, his references to himself as the Son of Man, and the testimonies of those who considered him to be the Christ – God from God. Remarkably, the Sufi poet Rumi, himself a devout Muslim, wrote, “Through love the King becomes a slave.”[41]   Despite the fact that there is no evidence that Rumi had the crucifixion of Jesus in mind, Rumi writes at length about the mystery and suffering of Jesus Christ:

Whoever turns his countenance to God  /  he must press his back against the Cross  /  until his body has been tied to the gallows  /  his soul cannot mount up to heaven./[42]

Khalid Muhammad Khalid (d. ?) writes in his book On the Road Together: Muhammad and Christ:

The Christ was himself his message. He was the love which knows no hatred … [and] the salvation which knows no perishing. With Muhammad the faithful we declare: “Christ, not Barabbas [the freedom fighter],[43] the true not the false, love not hatred, peace not war, life not extinction.”[44] 

Islam confirms Christianity’s assertion that Jesus was the Messiah, thereby rejecting the Jewish notion that the Messiah is yet to come. However, Islam agrees with Judaism concerning the humanness of the Messiah, thereby rejecting the Christian deification of Jesus. The Hebrew Bible uses the term “Messiah” 39 times, and applies it to kings, prophets, priests, Cyrus the king of Persia, and future military figures who defeat Israel’s enemies. For this reason, Jesus did not fit the prevailing Jewish model for a Messiah. Similarly, Muslims claim that calling Jesus a “son of God” does not support divinity, as the Hebrew Bible refers to King David and all of Israel as God’s sons. Muslims point out that Jesus used the term “your father” over 20 times in his sermons. In Matthew 5:9, Jesus described “peacemakers” as “sons of God.”  Christians, however, point to John 3:16 where Jesus is referred to as the “only Son.”[45] Christians assert that believers are the “sons and daughters of God,” but that Jesus is the “only Son” of God. In John 16:27-28, Jesus, who is considered the Logos in Christianity, said, “I came from the Father and have come into the world, and now I am leaving the world and going to the Father.” 

War and Violence

Even though violence is often perpetrated in the name of religion (e.g., the Crusades, the Inquisition, and the Sunni and Shia civil wars that followed Muhammad’s death), peace, love of God, and love of neighbor are the underpinnings for all major faith groups. Detractors often malign Islam as a violent religion and rush to point out the “sword verses” which some Muslim scholars claim were meant to be applied only to the pagan Arabs of Muhammad’s time.

To identify Jesus as the “Prince of Peace” and Muhammad the “Warrior Prophet” is to turn a blind eye to the warring of King David, Christian popes and emperors, the apocalyptic sayings of Jesus, and the writer of the biblical book of Revelations. The Qur’an is plainspoken when it commands, “Do not commit aggression for God loves not aggressors.”[46]  The Qur’an rejects violence as a method of spreading Islam by commanding, “Let there be no compulsion in religion.”[47] The Qur’an asserts that no religion can claim to be the exclusive way to God since “Allah chooses for Himself whom He wills, and guides to Him those who turn to Him.”[48] Allah commands Muslims to lead peaceful lives and to refrain from committing transgressions against other persons.[49] The Qur’an recommends that Muslims who are persecuted or oppressed should emigrate to escape persecution.[50] When relocation is not possible, then Allah requires Muslims to defend themselves by fighting against those who fight against them.

Counter to the Qur’an, Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406), considered the Father of Historiography and Economics, believed that “holy war” is a religious duty, because of the universalism of the Muslim mission which includes a compulsion to convert everyone to Islam either by persuasion or by force. Khaldun taught that Islam is under divine obligation to gain power over the nations. Conversely, Mohammad Noor, a former mujahideen (freedom fighter) commander, states that scholars of Islam agree that war is a condemnable evil that violates divine law. Noor claims that in the early history of Islam, “jihad of the sword” was only exercised in full against the pagans and polytheists; Christians and Jews, as “People of the Book,” were exempt from this form of jihad.[51] “The ‘People of the Book’ shall have the protection of Allah and the promise of Muhammad, the Apostle of Allah, that they shall be secure in their lives, property, lands, creeds, those absent and those present, their families, their churches and all that they possess. No bishop or monk shall be displaced from his parish or monastery; no priest shall be forced to abandon his priestly life. No hardships or humiliation shall be imposed on them, nor shall their lands be occupied by [our] army. Those who seek justice, shall have it:  there will be no oppressors nor oppressed.”[52] Noor maintains, “Permission to fight in self defense, referred to as “the lesser jihad,” is given to those who are unable to emigrate after being expelled from their homes because of their faith[53] and those against whom war is being wrongfully waged,”[54] with injunctions against killing women, children, the elderly, civilians, fellow Muslims, harming the environment, and destroying houses of worship. “The lesser jihad” is to be used only as a last resort, as Allah declares, “It is better to endure persecution with patience and forgiveness for God is merciful.”[55]

 

[1] Hebrew Bible, Genesis 16:10-11

[2] Kennedy, p. 68, The plague hit Constantinople around 500 – 550. For this reason, many cities were deserted and the Byzantine Empire crumbled. Damascus fell to the Muslims in 634. Egypt, also decimated by the plague, was conquered in 639.

[3] Armstrong, p. 30, Justo Gonzalez describes the spread of Islam as “a tidal wave of conquest [that] arose [and] threatened to engulf the world” (Gonzalez, p. 248).

[4] Qur’an 2:256, Christian and Jewish groups were allowed to follow their own religious laws; however, all groups were compelled to live in harmony and to defend Medina from external threats.

[5] Qur’an 109:6, Early Christians did all they did all they could to guard the faith by adopting rigorous and protracted procedures for prospective members. Converts had to give evidence of a profound change in belief, behavior and belonging. This process could last as long as two years. Sponsors had to attest the person’s behavior was exemplary. Choosing Christianity meant giving up the social and economic distinctions used by society to separate people. Christians created a new culture. In 313, Edict of Milan under Constantine not only extended toleration to Christians but also baptized conquered peoples. By the end of the century, under Emperor Theodosius, Christianity had become the official religion of the Roman Empire. Christianity went from being a marginalized and persecuted people to a group with official power and prestige. When the Roman Empire collapsed at the end of the 5th century, the Church assumed critical governing functions. When people did not convert willingly, coercion was used. This compromised the Church, and Christians began to reflect the culture instead of transforming it. The Church increasingly tolerated pagan beliefs and practices. The new Church-State alliance required every citizen to be enrolled as a member of the Church. For 1,500 year the Church had to struggle with the nominal faith of its members. Membership in the Church was no equivalent to citizenship in the nation. There were deeply committed Christians, but ordinary members were not expected to achieve this standard (Mercer, Class Lecture).

[6] Qur’an 2:62, With the exceptions of his critique of Jewish fundamentalism, Jesus never assumed the role of judge, and told his followers, “Judge not, lest you be judged” (New Testament, Matthew 7:1).

[7] Fatoohi, p. 11, Jesus is distinguished in the Qur’an, as he was the only Prophet who was miraculously created and did not have a biological father.

[8] Volf,  p. 67

[9] Ibid., In 1411 CE, Peter the Venerable (d. 1156) arranged for the first Latin translation of the Qur’an to develop a more sympathetic view of Islam. Vatican II (1962-1965) recognized Islam as affiliated with Abraham. Pope John Paul II (d. 2005) kissed the Qur’an in 1999; conversely in 2006, Pope Benedict XVI said that the “god” of Islam suffers no constraint on his caprice, unlike the Judeo-Christian God, who is limited by love. Benedict stated that jihad is the propagation of Islam by force.

[10] The term Allah has no plural and no gender. Christians who speak Arabic refer to God as Allah.

[11] https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20081122112223AA1WAg3

[12] Fatoohi, p. 47

[13] Ibid., p. 58

[14] Qur’an 18:4-5

[15] Qur’an 41:43, “Today, I have perfected your religion for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I approved Islam for your religion” (Qur’an 5:3, 3:19, 3:83).

[16] Ibid., p. 98

[17] Adam, Noah, Moses, Jonah, and David are also considered Prophets in Islam. Some Muslims believe that Buddha may have been a Prophet of Allah. Prophets are considered “sinless” by some Muslims – this does not mean that they did no wrong, but that they were protected from major sins. Muslims believe that only God is perfect.   

[18] New Testament, John 16:7, Jesus speaking, “Nevertheless I tell you the truth: It is expedient for you that I go away; for if I go not away, the Comforter will not come unto you; but if I go, I will send him unto you.”  Christians maintain that the Comforter represents the Holy Spirit.

[19] This is reminiscent of Abraham’s bargain with God to find 50 righteous people in Sodom and Gomorrah. Abraham negotiated down to 10 righteous people. None were found, and the city destroyed, save Lot and his family.

[20] Any translation of the Qur’an, outside of Arabic, is considered a deficient commentary.

[21] According to Volf, “God’s love is intimately linked to the doctrine of the Trinity, the incarnation, and the cross. Christians in no way compromise the absolute uniqueness and singularity of God.”  Most Christians believe God loved humanity enough to give God’s own self to and for humanity, by coming to earth as a man (John 1:14; 17:23-26; Philippians 2:1-11; and Hebrews 2:14-18; and 4:12-16). Christ’s death justified humanity to save believers from the wrath of God on the Day of Judgment.

[22] There are no intermediaries, such as clergy, in Islam. Sufis are criticized for their veneration of saints.

[23] It is remarkable that the Hebrew Bible and New Testament are validated in the Qur’an, yet not above critique – as is the Qur’an.

[24] Food permissible for Muslims is known as halah food.

[25] If Moltmann’s creation theory is correct, and God intentionally withdrew to allow for the process of creation, the death of Jesus is different, the reason for sacrifice is different, especially if God is attempting to fill all the godless spaces in order to complete creation. This purpose does not require the Christian doctrine of atonement or original sin.

[26] Qur’an 99:8, Muslims believe humans will be judged on Yawm ad-Din (the Day of Religion/Judgment) according to their good and bad deeds. Notably, sin in the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament originates in the physical real (with human disobedience in the Garden of Eden) while sin in Islam originates in the spiritual realm (as the Jinn {Satan}, an angel created from fire, refused to obey the command of God to bow to humankind).   

[27] Most of the New Testament was already widely recognized within Christianity prior to the creation of the “official” canon. Additionally, the orthodox Trinitarian expressions of the Constantinopolitan Creed can be found in very early Christian hymnody such as the Phos Hilaron. This “lamp lighting hymn” has been traced to 130. Basil the Great (d. 379) referred to it as cherished ancient hymn. It is a fixed part of Orthodox vesper service. Lyrics:  “O Light gladsome of the holy glory of the Immortal Father, the Heavenly, the Holy, the Blessed, O Jesus Christ, having come upon the setting of the sun, having seen the light of the evening, we praise the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit: God. Worthy it is at all times to praise Thee in joyful voices, O Son of God, Giver of Life, for which the world glorifies Thee.”

[28] Some Christians share this struggle as some of the writings of Paul seem to contradict the teachings of Jesus. It must be noted that most Christians define Jesus as the Word of God, not the New Testament.

[29] “That which does not preach Christ is not apostolic, though it be the work of Peter or Paul” (Preface to James, Martin Luther).

[30] After Muhammad died, two groups (Shi’a and Sunni) emerged; each has different Hadith. There are three groups within Shi’a Islam (the largest group, the Twelvers in present day Iraq and Afghanistan, the Ishamailis in present day Africa and India, and the Zaydis, which are closest to the Sunnis. Other smaller groups include the Bora, Druze, Alawites, and the Alevi). The Sufis are a mystic group within Sunni and Shia Islam. The Sufis seek divine experience through music, dance, and poetry. 

[31] Shia Muslims believe that Muhammad appointed his son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib, as his successor; because of this, Shia Muslims reject the leadership of the caliphs Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab (assassinated 644) and Uthman ibn al-Affan (assassinated 656).

[32] Any place where a Muslim prays/prostrates is considered a masjid. The word mosque comes from this word.

[33] Muhammad changed this tradition. Formerly, Muslims prayed facing Jerusalem.

[34] Throughout Christian history material wealth has also been considered a religious matter. Francis Schussler Fiorenza, author of The Church’s Religious Identity and Its Social and Political Mission, claims that “from the beginning the care of the needy and the poor were central to Christianity.”  Pope Boniface Ramsey (d. 1303) claimed that Christian almsgiving serves the “poor Christ” and provides atonement for sin. Rauschenbush claims that Christian baptism forms a “fraternal” connection between all humanity that demands just-peace. Jesus, speaking in the Sermon on the Plain instructed his followers to pray for their “daily bread,” and to share with in need (New Testament, Matthew 6:11).

[35] Many persecuted Jews and Christians aided the Muslim conquest of Byzantine and Persian territories.

[36] Jesus is called the Messiah 11 times in 9 different Qur’anic verses.

[37] The New Testament does not represent one unified Christology; it contains various nuances and emphases for Jesus.

[38] Qur’an 112:1-4, Muslims consider the doctrine of the Trinity and the divinity of Jesus to be polytheism.

[39] Although Muslims respect Mary, they reject the worship of Mary or Mariolatry. Some Christian theologians claim that virginal conception was created by the early Christian fathers because they believed it was required to apply the title “Son of God” to Jesus. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke mention virginal conception and Sonship. The Gospels of Mark, John, and the apostle Paul assert the Sonship of Jesus.    

[40] Cragg, p. 55, Fatoohi claims that Jesus did die, and that he is waiting to be resurrected on the Day of Resurrection like everyone else.

[41] Ibid., p. 63, Many Christians believe that the suffering of Christ provides a deep window into who God is and what God is like. Although this concept would be foreign to most Muslims, it is worthy of contemplation as Jesus did not claim that God was immutable or beyond suffering.

[42] Ibid.

[43] https://www.gospel-mysteries.net/barabbas.html

[44] Cragg, p. 53

[45] The term “Son of God” appears 82 times in 79 passages in the New Testament. The term “only Son” is also found in John 3:28 and 1 John 3:18. Sonship of God was considered blasphemous by the Jewish authorities (Matthew 26:63-65, Luke 22:70-71, John 10:32-36, and John 5:16-18).

[46] Qur’an 2:190

[47] Qur’an 2:256

[48] Qur’an 42:13

[49] Huda, p. xxi

[50] Qur’an 2:218

[51] Noor, p. 8, Qur’an 9:5, “And when the sacred months are over, slay the polytheists [the pagans of Muhammad’s time], wherever you find them, and take them captive, and besiege them, and lie in wait for them at every conceivable place.”  Qur’an 9:29, “Fight against those who do not believe in God nor in the Last Day.”  Jews and Christians in Muslim-controlled territories were also known as dhimi.

[52] Treaty with the “People of the Book” of Najran

[53] Qur’an 22:40

[54] Qur’an 22:38

[55] New Testament, Matthew 42:40-43

 

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David P. Stewart

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