Interview Techniques II

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Catalog Number: 991173

Title: Effective Interviewing Techniques

CPE Hours: 2

Level: Intermediate

Field of Study: Management

Prerequisites: Interviewing Basics (course 991172)

Author(s): Element: Trina Johnson and Aimee Allison

Master basic strategies of the interviewing process and become the most effective interviewer you can be. Course topics include:

• identifying effective interview questions
• applying appropriate questioning techniques
• learning how to deal with difficult applicant types
• practicing techniques of the successful interviewer.

This course is adapted from Diane Arthur's "Successful Interviewing: Techniques for Hiring, Coaching, and Performance Management Meetings" published by AMACOM, a division of the American Management Association

Topics

Unit 1: Questioning Techniques

Unit 2: Dealing With Different Applicant Types

Unit 3: How to Get the Most Out of Every Interview

Learning Objectives

• Provide one example for each of the five different types of effective interview questions. (Unit 1)
• Apply questioning techniques to different stages of an interview. (Unit 1)
• Identify two questioning techniques to avoid. (Unit 1)
• Be able to calm down an extremely nervous candidate. (Unit 2)
• Be able to control an excessively talkative candidate. (Unit 2)
• Be able to restrain an overly aggressive or domineering candidate. (Unit 2)
• Be able to relax a highly emotional or distraught candidate. (Unit 2)
• Be able to extract information from an evasive candidate. (Unit 2)
• Identify techniques for encouraging interviewees to talk. (Unit 3)
• Practice active listening skills. (Unit 3)
• Interpret body language. (Unit 3)
• Define the role of contrary evidence. (Unit 3)

1. Questioning Techniques
   • Introduction

While there are many different types of interviews, each with its own objective(s), all interviews share one common goal—to acquire information so that it may be used to make a decision. This information is acquired during an interview by using a question-and-answer format, which distinguishes an interview from a meeting or a casual conversation.

Throughout this course we will examine five effective questioning techniques and learn how to use these techniques during the various interview stages. Since ineffectively worded questions can have as much impact on an interview as choosing the most effective questioning technique, we will also examine two types of questions that should be avoided.

• Competency-Based Questions

One of the most effective questioning techniques is competency-based interviewing. Competency questions draw from past experiences and behaviors and relate them to specific requirements, responsibilities, or parameters of a given job-related situation.

Characteristics of Competency-Based Questions

Competency-based questions seek out specific examples from the interviewee. During applicant-related interviews, these examples help you predict how a candidate is likely to perform in your organization based on how the candidate performed in the past. If the environment, conditions, and circumstances are essentially the same in their current or previous company as in yours, then your task has been made simple. But, of course, this is rarely the case. That's why you need to extract information about all four competency categories: You need to know not only if the candidate knew what to do and how to think, but also whether he or she knew how to act and interact. Answers to these follow-up competency-based questions reveal how proficient the candidate is likely to be in all four categories when confronted with demanding projects.

Competency-based interviews allow you to make decisions based on facts. Competency-based interviews have the following characteristics:

• They are structured and job-specific.
• They focus on concrete and intangible competencies.
• They are legally defensible.

For these reasons, competency-based questions should represent about 70 percent of any interview. Other types of questions, which will be described later in this course, should supplement the rest of the interview.

• Competency-Based Lead-Ins

Competency-based questions are among the easiest to formulate. Each question is introduced by a lead-in phrase that alerts the applicant or employee that you want specific information. By the time you have asked the third or fourth competency-based question, interviewees will realize that they must respond with specifics whenever you begin with a lead-in phrase. The following are examples of competency-based lead-ins:

• "Describe a time when you…"
• "Give an example of a time in which you…"
• "Describe the most significant…"
• "How often in the last year were you called upon to…"
• "Tell me about a time when you didn't want to… What happened?"
• "Describe a situation in which you felt… What was the result?"

Key Competency Categories

While every job requires different competencies, there are four primary categories. Most jobs emphasize the need for one category over the others, but every employee should be able to demonstrate competencies, to some extent, in all four categories.

1. Technical skills
2. Knowledge
3. Behavior
4. Interpersonal skills

• The First Competency Category: Technical Skills

Technical competencies, which are tangible skills, demonstrate what people have done in past jobs. Having overall technical know-how, tailoring technical information to different audiences, using technical expertise to solve business problems, staying technologically current, understanding the technologies of the organization, optimizing technology, balancing multiple projects, and communicating project status are all technical competencies that are critical to success in many jobs today.

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Study Check 1

• The Second Competency Category: Knowledge

This competency pertains to what candidates know and how they think. The following are included in this category:

• Project-management skills
• Problem-solving skills
• Decision-making skills
• Time management skills
• Ability to focus on key elements of a project
• Ability to use resources effectively

Although these are considered intangible qualities, which means they are more difficult to measure and quantify than technical skills, they are no less important. Every job, regardless of level, requires a certain degree of knowledge. Even an entry-level position demands some degree of decision-making or problem-solving skills. Interviewers should ask knowledge-related questions appropriate to the level and nature of a job to determine not only what candidates know but also how they think. This is especially important when jobs do not require previous measurable experience, thereby precluding the possibility of drawing from past job-related experiences.

• The Third Competency Category: Behavior

This competency concerns a candidate's behavior, or how he or she acts under certain conditions.

For example, suppose the position calls for a high level of client satisfaction. There are numerous questions you can ask candidates with regard to job-specific behaviors that will reveal whether they will function effectively in meeting clients' needs. Consider the following questions:

• In past client-oriented jobs, was the applicant committed to developing lasting partnerships with clients?
• Did he or she keep clients informed of key developments?
• Did the applicant follow up to ensure client satisfaction?
• If the applicant worked as part of a team or led a team, did he or she help team members focus on client requirements?
• Did he or she incorporate client views in the decision-making process?

• The Fourth Competency Category: Interpersonal Skills

The fourth and final competency category involves interpersonal skills, that is, how an applicant interacts with others. Every job requires some degree of interaction with others. Regardless of how proficient they may be at what they do, what they know, and how they behave, if job candidates are unable to interact effectively with their managers, co-workers, employees, or clients, then their work and the work of others will suffer. Interviewers must ask questions, therefore, that focus on how the applicants interacted in past jobs in situations similar to those that are likely to occur in your organization. Consider the following questions:

• Does he or she actively listen?
• Can he or she exercise self-control when upset?
• Is he or she able to motivate and work with a wide variety of people?
• Does the applicant respect the views and ideas of others?
• Is he or she receptive to feedback?
• Can the applicant manage conflict effectively?

Study Check 2

• Additional Questioning Techniques

While most of your questions should be competency-based, the following are four other types that are also considered effective:

• Open-ended questions
• Hypothetical questions
• Probing questions
• Close-ended questions

• Open-Ended Questions

Open-ended questions encourage interviewees to talk, thereby allowing the interviewer an opportunity not only to assess verbal communication skills but also to observe the interviewee's pattern of nonverbal communication. Here are some examples of open-ended questions.

• What is the nature of some of the situations you had to deal with?
• Who are the people who call you?
• What is the process that someone with a complaint is supposed to follow?
• What is your role in the procedures for handling complaints?
• Exactly what is the customer hot line?
• What do you mean when you say that you "handle" the hot line?
• What do you say to a customer who calls on the hot line?

Most open-ended questions can be made more substantive when they are recast as competency-based questions. Consider the open-ended question, "How would you describe your ability to deal with difficult customers?" Recast as a competency-based question it becomes, "Describe a situation in which an irate customer held you responsible for something that was not your fault. What did you do?"

• Potential Problems with Open-Ended Questions

There can be problems with open-ended questions. The interviewee's response may provide information that is irrelevant or that violates Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) laws. If the latter occurs, the interviewer must guide the person back to the focus of the question. One way to do this is to say, "Excuse me, but we seem to have strayed from the original question of why you left your last job. I would like to get back to that."

Another concern is that open-ended questions may be too broad in scope. An example of this would be "Describe your work history" when you are addressing an applicant who has worked for more than 30 years. A better way to phrase this is, "Please describe your work experience over the past two years." This is still open-ended, but it establishes useful boundaries. The following table provides you with sample open-ended questions for each interview type.

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Study Check 3

• Hypothetical Questions

Hypothetical questions allow you to evaluate an interviewee's reasoning abilities, thought processes, values, attitudes, creativity, work style, and approaches to different tasks.

Hypothetical questions are best suited for employment interviews when the applicant has limited work experience and for change-in-status interviews. Hypothetical situations are presented as problems, and the interviewee is asked to provide a solution.

An important distinction between hypothetical and competency-based questions is that hypothetical questions require applicants to project what they might do in a fictitious (albeit realistic) scenario. Competency-based questions draw from the applicant's actual experiences and are based on facts. Hypothetical questions are generally introduced with words and phrases such as the following:

• "What would you do if..."
• "How would you handle..."
• "How would you solve..."
• "Assuming..."
• "How would you avoid…"

• Probing Questions

Probing questions enable the interviewer to delve deeper for additional information. These types of questions should be considered follow-up questions that are short in length and worded simply. There are three types of probing questions.

Rational Probing Questions

This type of questioning requests specific reasons for an interviewee's answers. Short question words, such as who, when, why, how, and how often are commonly used.

Example: "What kind of people do you find it difficult or easy to work with? Why?"

Clarifier Probing Questions

This type of questioning is used to qualify or expand on information provided in a previous response.

Example: "You said that a college professor influenced you the most in regard to your career goals. How did he or she do this?"

Example: "You said that you were wrongly accused of taking credit for someone else's work. What were the circumstances that resulted in that happening?"

Verifier Probing Questions

This type of questioning confirms the truthfulness of a statement.

Example: "Your résumé states that you currently work closely with the officers from your customers' firms. What are the names of these officers? What are their areas of responsibility and exactly what have you done for them?"

Example: "What would your manager say about your last presentation to senior management? Why?"

Questioning Tip

Be careful not to ask too many probing questions in a row, as they tend to make interviewees feel defensive. In addition, be certain that your body language expresses interest but not accusation. Maintain eye contact, but avoid staring directly at the interviewee. You should also nod and smile periodically, but avoid raising your eyebrows.

Study Check 4

• Close-Ended Questions

These questions may be answered with a single word, generally yes or no. Close-ended questions can be helpful because in addition to giving an interviewer greater control, they also help to put shy or nervous applicants at ease. Close-ended questions are best used when you need further clarification on a topic or when you need to verify information. These types of questions usually elicit short and concise responses.

Additionally, if there is a single issue that could terminate the interview, such as the absence of an important job requirement, then by asking about it up front in a direct, close-ended way, you can find out what you need to know quickly and efficiently.

Keep in mind that close-ended questions should not be substituted for open-ended or competency-based questions. All close-ended questions can be converted into open-ended questions. Examples of functional close-ended questions are given in the table below.

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Study Check 5

• Questioning Techniques and Their Purpose

The following table identifies the five recommended questioning techniques and their respective purposes.

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• Relating Questioning Techniques to Interview Stages

There are five stages to an interview—rapport-building, introductory, core, confirmation, and closing—and four of these stages lend themselves to open- or close-ended questions.

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• Questioning Techniques to Avoid

Now that you are familiar with the five recommended questioning techniques, you should also be aware of the two types of interview questions to avoid—multiple-choice and leading.

Multiple-Choice Questions

Sometimes, interviewers unwittingly resort to "loaded" questions because they have lost control of the interview. If you want to regain control, ask a series of close-ended questions, and then return to more meaningful competency-based questions or one of the other types of questions described earlier in this chapter.

Consider these examples of multiple-choice questions that you should not ask and a sample rewording of the question.

Instead of: "How do you go about delegating tasks: according to what a person has proven he can do, demonstrated interest, or random selection?"

Try this: "Describe how you go about delegating assignments. Give me an example of when you last did this."

Instead of: "Would you describe your management style as being akin to theory X, Y, or Z?"

Try this: "How would you describe your management style? Give me an example of when you applied this style."

Instead of: "Would you say the greatest motivator for working is money or the pleasure one derives from doing a good job?"

Try this: "What would you say is the greatest motivator for working? Why do you think this is so?"

Instead of: "Would you describe your former employee as lazy or self-disciplined?"

Try this: "How would you describe your former employee in terms of his work style?"

Instead of: "Would you like to stay in this field for the rest of your career or do you think you would like to do something else?"

Try this: "What are your short- and long-term goals?"

Leading Questions

Another type of question to avoid is the leading question. This type of question implies that there is only one correct answer. In truth, the interviewer phrases the question so that the applicant provides the desired response. The following are examples of leading questions:

• "You do intend to finish college, don't you?"
• "Don't you agree that most workers need to be watched very closely?"
• "When you were in school, how much time did you waste taking art and music classes?"

It is obvious from the wording of these questions that the interviewer is seeking a specific answer. Given this fact, one cannot hope to learn anything substantive by asking leading questions.

Study Check 6

• Summary

Carefully worded questions can make the difference between an effective interview and an ineffective one. Always ask yourself which questioning technique will yield the most relevant and comprehensive information.

Competency-Based and Open-Ended Questions

Among the five questioning techniques presented, the most worthwhile technique is asking competency-based questions. Competency-based questions draw from past experiences and behaviors and relate them to specific requirements or responsibilities of a given job-related situation. They should represent the majority of the core stage and most, if not all, of the closing stage of interviewing.

Open-ended questions require full, multiple-word responses and are asked during the introductory and confirmation stages. In cases when the interviewer uses hypothetical problem situations, the interviewee's responses can help the interviewer evaluate the interviewee's reasoning abilities and his or her approach to various tasks. Open-ended question work best during the core stage of interviewing because they lend balance to the competency-based questions.

Probing and Close-Ended Questions

Probing questions enable the interviewer to delve deeper for additional information. These questions are usually short and worded simply; they are asked during the core stage of interviewing.

Finally, close-ended questions are answered with a single word. They have the dual effect of giving the interviewer greater control and making shy or nervous interviewees feel more at ease. Close-ended questions are usually asked during the rapport-building stage, but they may also be asked during the core stage to a limited extent.

What to Avoid

There are two types of interview questions to avoid: multiple-choice and leading. Multiple-choice questions imply that the correct answer is among the options you have offered which, in effect, negates any alternative answers. Leading questions imply that there is only one correct answer.

Unit Review

1. Dealing With Different Applicant Types
   • Introduction

Most applicants and employees are eager to make a good impression during an interview. Occasionally, however, you will find yourself face-to-face with a less-than-ideal or difficult candidate. There are numerous categories into which a less-than-ideal candidate may fall, but, typically, most may be described as being either extremely nervous, excessively talkative, overly aggressive, highly emotional, or evasive.

• Nervous Candidates

Many applicants and employees are nervous when they go to interviews. (Many interviewers are too!) Generally, candidates calm down as soon as they arrive or after the first few minutes of the interview. However, some interviewees remain nervous and need extra help getting through the meeting. Indeed, without that help, they are unable to provide the kind of information you need to fairly evaluate their qualifications.

Common Signs of Nervousness

How do you know that an interviewee's nervousness exceeds that which is considered normal? Some classic characteristics are if the interviewee does or exhibits any of the following:

• Wrings hands
• Sweaty palms
• Hands shake
• Continually adjusts an article of clothing, such as smoothing a skirt or touching the knot of a tie
• Casts eyes downward

Of course, many of these traits could be displayed for reasons that have nothing to do with a person's being nervous. For example, in certain cultures, it is considered impolite to make direct eye contact with someone for whom you have respect. With a nervous applicant, however, these otherwise acceptable traits are generally exaggerated or last longer.

How to Ease Nervousness

If an interviewee is especially nervous, it will be apparent within the first few seconds of the rapport-building stage of the interview. A nervous interviewee needs help calming down and must be given time to warm up to the information-driven aspects of the interview. For example, a broad, open-ended, or competency-based question might be too intimidating if posed at the very beginning of the interview. Instead, try a few close-ended questions to put the candidate at ease. These questions should be simple and on topics that will likely make the applicant feel comfortable. Be certain to use a soft tone of voice and try to exaggerate your positive body language.

The best method to calm an interviewee is to make certain that the first open-ended question and the first competency-based question are about topics within the interviewee's realm of experience; this will encourage a certain degree of ease. Let the person know in as many ways as possible that you are interested in what he or she has to say.

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Study Check 7

• Talkative Candidates

Some people seem capable of talking nonstop. They not only answer your questions but also volunteer a great deal more information, much of which is irrelevant and sometimes even illegal for you, the interviewer, to know.

Talkative applicants and employees do so for one of two primary reasons. The first reason is the interviewees' belief that the interviewer wants them to talk a great deal. Interviewees know that interviewers need to assess their verbal communication skills and their methods of organizing their thoughts. Thus, some erroneously conclude that the more they say when responding to questions, the better their assessment will be. Unfortunately, some interviewees take this concept too far and talk too much.

The second reason is that some interviewees substitute lengthy answers for a lack of substance. They just don't have a great deal to offer in the way of experience, and so they talk about other matters to draw attention away from their lack of experience.

Common Signs of Talkativeness

Identifying an excessive talker early on is critical so that the interviewer can gain control from the outset. The following are some common signs of talkativeness that you can look out for at the very beginning of the interview.

• Lengthy responses to ice-breaker questions
• Does not take a breath or pause when it seems natural to do so
• Finishes your questions for you
• Talks along with you when you make a comment
• Is impatient when you are talking

How to Stop Excessive Talkers

The key to effectively dealing with interviewees who talk too much is maintaining control of the interview. Below are several tips for maintaining control during an interview:

Interrupt

Sometimes you need to interrupt and say something like, "That's really interesting, but there's a great deal more we need to cover. So if you could, please curtail your responses somewhat."

Remain Silent

Maintain steady eye contact, without any expression on your face. Let the person talk and talk and talk. Eventually, he or she will stop. At that point, continue maintaining eye contact for a moment more, slowly and deliberately look down and say, "That was quite an answer. But I'm afraid I lost you quite a way back. Maybe you could make your statements a bit more concise from this point on."

Speak More Slowly

The contrast between your rate of speaking and the applicant's long-windedness often results in the other person becoming aware of how long he or she has been talking.

Take a look at the case study that follows to see how one interviewer attempted to regain control of the interview.

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Study Check 8

• Aggressive Candidates

Some applicants and employees present themselves in an overly aggressive or dominant manner. This aggressiveness or attempt to dominate is sometimes a subterfuge for substance; that is, a cover-up for a lack of skills or experience. It is important to recognize aggressiveness early on so you can decide what course of action to take.

Common Signs of Aggressiveness

Aggressive traits may manifest in a number of ways, including the following:

• Demanding to meet with someone who "really knows the job"
• Placing personal items, such as a briefcase, on your desk
• Taking cell phone calls during the interview
• Asking you to hold your phone calls during the interview because he or she is very busy and doesn't have much time
• Feigning indignation over or impatience with the questions you ask

How to Handle Aggressiveness

When you are confronted with aggressive behavior, it is important to stay calm and maintain your objectivity. Try to find out the reason behind the behavior. Explain that you cannot continue the interview as long as he or she behaves aggressively. If the aggressive behavior does not subside after this, it might be a good idea to reschedule the interview. However, it is never a good idea to mirror the other person's aggressiveness; this tactic usually escalates the aggression on both sides.

The following case study illustrates how one interviewer's attempt to remain calm unfortunately ends with aggressive comments that only make matters worse.

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Study Check 9

• Emotional Candidates

An applicant or employee who begins to weep or plead for a job can be quite unnerving. Being terminated, even if it is not the person's fault, can result in a display of emotions that a person would otherwise never reveal in a business setting. Although confronting a distraught or highly emotional applicant or employee probably won't happen too often, you should learn what signs to look for.

Common Signs of Emotion

People who are highly emotional may have misty eyes and a voice that cracks or changes pitch. Using words and phrases such as "please…" "I really need…," "I'm a fast learner…," "Give me another chance..…," "If I don't get this job…," and "I'm not afraid of hard work…" are common. They may even offer to take a reduction in pay.

How to Deal with Emotional People

It is not unusual for an interviewer to feel uncomfortable when an interviewee becomes highly emotional. Interviewers often become unnerved and want to end the meeting. While that may sometimes be the best course of action, it is possible to continue if you leave the person alone for a few moments to regain his or her composure. However, if you find yourself interviewing an emotional person, try extending empathy rather than sympathy. Empathy means letting the person know you understand that he or she is upset or anxious, but it also enables you to remain objective.

Joe was not looking forward to telling Melanie that she was being let go. He had coached and counseled her for the past year, but her work was still below expectations.

After a year of coaching, Melanie knew that her work was still not up to speed and her biggest fear was getting fired. But when Joe asked her to meet with him, she suspected the reason was for some more coaching, not to fire her. Let's see what happens when Joe starts out as empathetic but ends up being sympathetic to Melanie's plight.

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• Evasive Candidates

Have you ever completed an interview only to discover that you really didn't learn much about the person you just spoke with? Chances are, it was because the applicant was being evasive. People are often evasive in an interview when they either have little to offer in the way of substance or are trying to cover up something they feel could hurt their chances for a job.

Common Signs of Evasiveness

The following are some typical signs of evasiveness exhibited by applicants and employees:

• Answer questions with questions
• Interrupt their flow of speech, or the interviewer's, with tangential information like, "Say, that reminds me of a time when I…"
• Answer questions with "I am" statements, such as "I am analytical," "I am a great problem solver," or "I am good at making decisions"
• Ask what you would do under certain circumstances instead of telling you what he or she would do

How to Deal with Evasiveness

Evasive interviewees can be tricky. As soon as you see any of the signs, be on the alert and strive to maintain control of the interview. Evasive interviewees can also be intimidating, so you need to remind yourself that you are the interviewer. If you feel a question is job-related, then the applicant should answer it. After each response, take a moment to ask yourself if the person answered your question and, if so, what did you learn? A couple of tips for handling evasive interviewees are:

• Ask competency-based questions that require specific examples.

Example: "Tell me about a time when you didn't want to take on some of the work from a terminated employee. What did you do?"

• Ask questions that will generate verifiable answers.

Example: "If I were to ask your former manager how you approach multiple tasks, what would he or she say?"

Take a look at the case study below to see how one interviewer uses these tips with an evasive interviewee.

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Study Check 10

• Summary

While most people are eager to make a good impression during an interview, occasionally you will find yourself with a less-than-ideal candidate.

Nervous or Talkative Interviewees

Nervous interviewees may exhibit shaky hands, repeatedly slip a piece of jewelry on and off, or twirl a strand of hair. As soon as you realize a person is extremely nervous, speak with a softer tone of voice, pose a few close-ended questions, and use words of encouragement.

Excessively talkative interviewees may be trying to substitute talk for substance. They are often very personable and pleasant; however, your goal is to acquire sufficient information on which to base an employment-related decision. Therefore, it may be necessary to periodically interrupt and remind the person that he or she has strayed from answering the question. Reiterate that time is limited and you fear you won't have the information you need to make an effective decision if you cannot get concise answers. Silence can also be an effective tool for excessively talkative interviewees.

Aggressive, Emotional or Evasive Interviewees

Interviewing overly aggressive applicants and employees can be intimidating. Try to remain calm and maintain your objectivity. Explain that you cannot continue the interview as long as he or she continues to behave aggressively. If the aggressive behavior continues, it may be best to reschedule the interview for another day.

Highly emotional interviewees or employees may weep or plead for their jobs. When this happens, interviewers often become unnerved and want to end the meeting. While that may sometimes be the best course of action, it is possible to continue if you leave the person alone for a few moments to regain his or her composure. Try to remain empathetic, but do not become sympathetic.

Finally, evasive interviewees can be exasperating. These people may answer questions with questions, try to belittle the importance of certain questions to avoid answering them, or even try to tell you what questions to ask. An effective way of dealing with an evasive interviewee is to pose a series of competency-based questions. Also, ask questions that will generate verifiable answers.

A Quick Reference

At the first indication that you are dealing with a particular interview type, you should make certain adjustments in how you conduct the interview. A summary of the adjustments discussed in this unit appears in the table below.

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Unit Review

1. How to Get the Most Out of Every Interview
   • Introduction

To get the most out of every interview, you should encourage interviewees to talk, and then actively listen when they ask or answer questions, understand and interpret their body language, and explore contrary evidence—that is, seek information to balance a one-sided picture.

Seek a Balanced Picture

Let's take a look at an interview between Michael, an employee, and Sonia, the company's director of human resources. The interview was to consider Michael for a promotion from compensation analyst to compensation manager. Although Michael's last performance evaluation was very good overall, it did indicate that he had trouble following up with department heads who were delinquent in submitting performance reviews. The review also stated that Michael was somewhat rigid in the way he likes things done. Unfortunately, Sonia failed to look at Michael's last performance evaluation before the interview. As a result, Sonia had no reason to suspect that the behaviors Michael exhibited during the interview suggested problems between him and his manager. If Sonia had been more attentive to Michael's behavior and had compared his behavior with the information on his last performance review, she might not have recommended Michael for the promotion. Read the case study below to get more of the story.

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• Encourage Interviewees to Talk

Many interviewees are well prepared, self-confident, and more than willing to converse with you. Indeed, it is difficult to prevent some of them from talking too much. With others, however, talking to an interviewer can be so intimidating that they give very brief answers to your questions. Here are some ways to encourage an applicant or employee to speak freely.

Use Repetition

Repetition encourages the person to continue talking and also helps to clarify certain points. Repeating the last few words, or a few key words, of an interviewee's answer and allowing your voice to fade out as a question mark should encourage the person to elaborate. To illustrate, let's return to our fictitious example with Sonia and Michael. Using repetition would have likely encouraged Michael to provide valuable additional information. The following dialogue presents a far more accurate picture of Michael's reason for wanting a promotion than did his initial "canned" response.

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Summarize

Like repetition, summarizing allows you to solidify the points made during an interview by giving the interviewee an opportunity to clarify the information you present. It also ensures that you have an accurate understanding of the information. Summarization may be used at specific time intervals in the interview, such as every ten minutes, or after a new topic has been discussed.

However, be careful not to include more than four or five statements in your summary. This way, if part of it is inaccurate or requires clarification, it will not be difficult to isolate. Summarization also helps ensure that you are actively listening to the other person.

In the case study with Sonia and Michael, imagine that they have just devoted about ten minutes to reviewing his prior work experience as it relates to the available position. Now Sonia offers Michael the opportunity to confirm all or part of what she summarizes. He does so and offers additional information.

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Use Key Phrases

Key phrases are expressions such as "I see," "How interesting," "Is that right?" "Really?" and "I didn't know that." It is important to note that none of these phrases expresses an opinion or shows agreement or disagreement; these expressions merely show interest and acknowledgement. Sonia could have employed some of these phrases when Michael said that he received an above average rating on his performance evaluation.

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Silence Is Useful

Most people find silence awkward and uncomfortable. Consequently, interviewers often feel compelled to talk whenever the applicant or employee stops. However, unless you are prepared to ask another question, talking when you need additional information from the applicant will not help with your hiring decision.

When an interviewee stops talking and you want him or her to continue, try counting to five in your head before speaking. This pause often encourages a candidate to continue speaking. Of course, you must be careful not to carry silence too far. An interview can easily become a stressful situation if you simply continue to stare at a person who has nothing more to say or who needs your encouragement to continue. However, if you combine silence with positive body language, the applicant should continue talking within a few seconds. Silence very clearly conveys the message that you want more information.

When Michael said he didn't feel his manager listened to his ideas, he became uneasy and did not volunteer any additional information. Moving on to another topic would be a mistake since Sonia needed to learn more, such as what ideas Michael was referring to, why he felt his boss didn't listen, and what, if anything, he had tried to do about it. If Sonia had probed further with a direct statement such as, Michael, please tell me about a time when you feel your boss did not listen to your ideas," it might have made Michael feel defensive. As a result, Michael might shut down even further. Take a look at the case study to see how Sonia could have applied silence in this situation.

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Study Check 11

• Active Listening Skills

You cannot make an effective interview-related decision unless you listen to what the interviewee has to say. Effective interviewers employ active listening skills during interviews.

Most people do not realize when they talk too much during an interview. The most effective talking/active listening ratio for any interview situation is 30/70. This means that 30 percent of an interviewer's time should be devoted to talking, with the remaining 70 percent spent actively listening to the employee or applicant. Many interviewers talk entirely too much, going so far as to reverse this ratio. This typically occurs when the interviewee is uninteresting to listen to, talks too slowly, goes off on a tangent, or has trouble organizing his or her thoughts. The result of this reversal is that the interviewer fails to acquire the information needed to make an effective decision.

If you find yourself talking more than 30 percent of the time, remind yourself that this is not your interview. Your job is to get information from the other person so that you can make a decision. This is impossible if you are talking more than you are listening.

Focus on Key Information

Many interviewers think active listening means that they should listen to every word a person says. That's not realistic; many people muddy their statements with irrelevant thoughts and sentences. If you try to focus on every word, you will likely get lost in a sea of verbiage and lose track of the main point. Instead, concentrate on key information.

Let's continue the example with Sonia and Michael. If Sonia had read Michael's performance evaluation, she probably would have asked about Michael's problems with collecting delinquent performance reviews. Although Sonia likely would have gotten more information than she needed or wanted to hear, it would have been wise to let Michael talk without interruption. In the following case study, Michael goes off on a tangent by mentioning his daughter's soccer game, but the rest of the information would have been helpful in conveying Michael's frame of mind.

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Filter out Distractions

Distractions can include people coming into your office, ringing telephones, and your thinking about non-work related issues. The latter can easily occur when applicants or employees are not interesting to listen to. Maybe the work they do strikes you as being dull, or perhaps they speak in a monotone. When this occurs, you may find yourself thinking about your vacation to the Mediterranean and how you would prefer to be there right now. If you find this is happening, tell yourself that it is unfair to judge people based on how well they are able to hold your interest. Remind yourself of the objective of your interview and tell yourself that if you do not listen actively, you are likely to miss important information that could influence the final decision.

There will always be exceptions, and sometimes interruptions are absolutely necessary; however, you can create a more conducive atmosphere for active listening by cutting down on the number of distractions. Some techniques you can employ to minimize distractions are as follows:

• Post a sign outside your office door whenever you are conducting an interview. It might say, "Interview in progress. Come back later."
• Place a notepad and pencil on your door and ask that people write you a message.
• Ask someone to intercept visitors and take a message when you are interviewing.
• Set your phone so that calls are immediately routed to your voice mail.
• Try to conduct interviews during a set time each day, and make it known throughout the office that you are not to be disturbed during those hours.

Use Thought Speed to Your Advantage

It is generally accepted that most people speak at a rate of approximately 125 words per minute but can think at a rate of approximately 400 words per minute. Obviously, this means that we think faster than we speak, but there is much more to thought speed than this. While the other person is talking, you can use thought speed to accomplish the following:

• Prepare your next question.
• Analyze what the interviewee is saying.
• Piece together what the interviewee is currently saying in relation to something said earlier in the interview.
• Glance down at the application, résumé, or other relevant paper work to verify information.
• Observe body language.
• Consider how this candidate's background relates to the job requirements.
• Take notes.

However, thought speed can work against you if you do any of the following:

• Anticipate how an interviewee is going to complete a response before he or she has finished speaking.
• Jump to conclusions without hearing enough information.
• Compare an interviewee's responses with those of a previous applicant.
• Get too involved in note taking.
• Just "tune out" while the interviewee is talking.

Study Check 12

• Understanding Body Language

Nonverbal communication, commonly referred to as body language, is a vital aspect of the employment process. Although it is not a science and is subject to misinterpretation, body language can reveal information about applicants and employees. In fact, experts have determined that people respond to body language 55 percent of the time; tone of voice 38 percent of the time; and words a mere 7 percent of the time.

Body language consists of the following five critical dimensions:

• Kinesics
• Proxemics
• Chronemics
• Oculesics
• Haptics

Kinesics

Kinesics refers to all body movements that have communicative value. Facial expressions, head movements, posture, and hand motions all fall into this category. It is estimated that we make and recognize nearly 250,000 distinct facial expressions. Most researchers recognize the following as the most common: interest, excitement, enjoyment, surprise, distress, anguish, shame, contempt, anger, and fear.

Michael demonstrated kinesics when he shifted uncomfortably in his chair when the subject of his relationship with his current manager came up. That should have indicated to Sonia that something was wrong and that she should pursue the subject further. Sonia could have asked a series of competency-based questions concerning Michael's relationship with his manager to confirm the nonverbal message Michael was sending.

Proxemics

The second dimension, proxemics, involves the use of interpersonal space, or the distance we maintain from one another. There are four zones in interpersonal space:

• Intimate zone: People are actually touching or are easily able to touch each other; spatially, this zone means people are from zero to one and a half feet apart.
• Personal zone: People are able to shake hands or are no more than arm's length from each other; spatially this zone means people are one and a half to four feet apart.
• Social-consultive zone: This is most common in everyday social or business encounters; spatially, this zone means that people are four to ten feet apart.
• Public zone: This is rarely used; spatially, this zone means that the distance between people is ten feet and beyond.

Western culture recognizes a distance of two to five feet as the appropriate distance between interviewer and interviewee. This distance is an overlap of the personal and social-consultive zones. A candidate or an employee from a culture that regards this as too great a distance might immediately pull his or her chair closer to the interviewer. This might be interpreted by the interviewer as a violation of space or as an act of aggression or intimacy, leaving him or her with feelings of discomfort, hostility, or intimidation. Some interviewers even move their own chairs back or stand up during instances of what they perceive to be excessive proximity.

Chronemics

The third dimension is chronemics. This is the amount of time between verbal exchanges in a conversation or discussion. In Western culture, we expect people to respond to our questions immediately. In other cultures, however, people may deliberately wait before answering; to do otherwise would be considered inconsiderate. Chronemics sometimes can also refer to speech rate, vocal tone, pitch, and enunciation, even though these technically constitute verbal aspects of communication.

Oculesics

The fourth dimension is oculesics. This refers to eye contact or the lack of it. In Western culture, we expect people to make direct eye contact with us when conversing. We might go so far as to assume the other person has something to hide if he or she does not look us right in the eye when speaking. In some cultures, however, particularly Asian cultures, it is considered rude or intrusive to look directly at someone for whom you have regard.

Haptics

The final dimension of body language is haptics, or actual body contact. Have you ever reached out and gently touched someone on the arm when speaking? Perhaps someone has done this to you. This nonverbal expression, when consistent with a verbal message, is considered acceptable, although some people are uncomfortable with it. In addition, due to the potential for misinterpretation and the possibility of perceived harassment, employers and employees are advised against touching anyone in the workplace, especially when they are alone in a room with someone.

Any of these five critical dimensions of body language on their own can send a powerful message. When they are combined, the impact can be even greater and may often override simultaneous verbal messages. When a contradiction exists between what is stated verbally and what is expressed nonverbally, the silent message is often the one that speaks the loudest.

Study Check 13

• Analyzing Body Language

Analyzing body language is complicated by the fact that no single aspect of nonverbal communication can be translated universally. That is, a gesture made by one person may mean something entirely different when it is made by a different person. For example, just because you have a tendency to avoid making eye contact when you are hiding something does not mean that an applicant is avoiding your eyes for the same reason. It may very well be a sign that he or she is deep in thought. Each person develops his or her own pattern of nonverbal messages and tends to react to a particular situation in the same nonverbal way each time the situation is repeated. Although there are no universal interpretations to body language cues, each of us has our own nonverbal pattern that may be translated consistently if observed over time.

Translating Body Language across Cultures

Different cultures tend to translate body language differently. In the United States, for example, nodding the head generally indicates an affirmative answer or understanding. In the Middle East, however, a single nod means "no." Such differences in interpretation also occur as a result of individual socialization processes. Thus, our patterns of nonverbal expression are attributable to a combination of cultural and environmental factors.

Be careful not to draw conclusions based on an interviewee's nonverbal messages during the early stages of the interview process. Allow time for the individual's patterns to emerge, and then relate these patterns to other factors involved in making a selection.

Interpreting Body Language

To say that nonverbal communication cannot be universally translated, however, is not to say that specific gestures or expressions do not typically convey a particular meaning. As a result, misinterpretation of body language frequently occurs in the workplace, sometimes with a negative impact on employer-employee relations.

Rather than focusing on how specific movements and gestures may carry a certain message, interviewers should be aware of any sudden changes in nonverbal communication. For example, if a person has been sitting quite comfortably for 20 minutes or so, then suddenly shifts in his seat when you ask why he wants to transfer out of his department, this is a clue that something is amiss. Even if the person offers an acceptable response without hesitation, the sudden change in body language should tell you that something is wrong. Additional probing is necessary. Do not ignore the conflict between the verbal and the nonverbal language that presents itself.

Be Aware of the Messages You Send

Also, be careful not to erroneously interpret a person's body language according to his reaction to you. If you are not aware of your own body language, you may incorrectly assume that an applicant is initiating a nonverbal message instead of reacting to your own. It is critical to be aware of your own body language in terms of how you react to certain emotions or situations.

By being aware of your own nonverbal communication, you can consciously choose to project certain nonverbal messages to applicants and employees. For instance, by knowing that nodding one's head is generally interpreted as a sign of understanding, you can use this gesture to encourage the other person to continue talking. If you are aware that leaning forward in one's chair implies interest or attentiveness, you can assume this position when interviewing in order to indicate interest in whatever the interviewee is saying.

Your nonverbal responses can be controlled once you are aware of them. Because your goal is to evaluate the other person as objectively as possible, it is important to do this during an interview. It is difficult enough to make a value judgment, and adding elements that may not be valid can only make the task more difficult. Take a look at the case study that follows for an example of the effect body language can have in the workplace.

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Study Check 14

• Seek Contrary Information

To avoid getting a one-sided picture of a person, seek contrary information. When an interviewer begins to get a one-sided impression of an employee or applicant, the natural tendency is to ask questions that will confirm that impression. If the initial impression is good, the interviewer will probably ask questions that confirm his or her positive views. Likewise, if the first impression is bad, he or she may explore areas that validate those negative feelings. The result can be an incomplete, lopsided image of the applicant.

If you find yourself doing this, stop immediately. Remind yourself that no one brings all positive or all negative traits to a job. Whenever you feel you're getting a one-sided picture of a person, ask questions that will seek out contrary information. For example, if all your questions have focused on situations in which the candidate excelled, ask questions that target instances or projects that the applicant feels he or she could have done differently or better.

Sometimes, asking for contrary information can change your evaluation of a person. Alternatively, it may confirm your earlier views. Whatever the case may be, seeking contrary information will help you make a more informed decision.

Techniques That Seek Contrary Information

The following are three helpful techniques for seeking contrary information:

• Ask direct questions.
• Create scenarios.
• Pose "What if…" questions.

We will apply these techniques to Michael's interview with Sonia for the compensation manager position, but first you need to be aware of some important background information that explains where Sonia was coming from.

When Michael applied for the opening, Sonia was pleased. She'd known Michael for two years and always found him to be pleasant and helpful. She believed he was a knowledgeable compensation analyst and assumed that if he could do the job of an analyst, he should be ready to perform the tasks of a compensation manager.

She didn't recall hearing anything negative about him and knew there were no warning notices in his file or any disciplinary actions taken against him. Consequently, she did not bother reading his most recent performance review. She also assumed (erroneously) that he was applying with his manager's approval. In fact, she assumed his manager had encouraged him to apply and had groomed him as a replacement. When Michael's appointment rolled around, Sonia believed she was interviewing him with an open mind. In reality, she was leaning in favor of selecting him for the position and posed questions to confirm her positive impressions of him.

• Direct Questioning Techniques

Asking direct questions to seek contrary information is an excellent technique if the other person cooperates and responds. Note that these are usually competency-based questions. Given her predisposition about Michael, Sonia should have sought contrary information. She could have done so in one of three ways. First, she could have asked direct questions. Here are some of the questions she could have asked.

• "I've gotten a really good idea of what you do well, but we all know no one is perfect, so if you would, tell me about a time when a project or assignment didn't turn out the way you had hoped."
• " I'm impressed with all of your accomplishments. Now I'd like to take a few moments to discuss areas where you feel you could improve."
• "This has been really interesting, Michael, but it would help me now if you could think of a time when something you were working on didn't turn out the way you expected."
• "Describe a situation at work that you're not especially proud of."
• "Tell me about a time when something at work got out of hand; what happened?"
• "Pick a project or situation that you would like to redo. What would you do differently?"

If an applicant or employee is evasive, however, you could end up with something like the conversation that follows.

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• Create Scenarios

In the case study above, Sonia's series of direct questions to seek contrary information did not provide much in the way of answers from Michael. If this occurs during an interview, move on to the second technique, creating a series of specific scenarios. Creating scenarios compels the other person to provide more-specific responses. Following are some scenarios Sonia might have presented to Michael (had she read his last performance review, that is):

• "Imagine, if you will, the following situation: You are trying to get a department head to submit the performance reviews for her staff on time. You feel you are being diligent. However, she describes you as being overbearing and complains to your manager. How would you respond?"
• "What would you do if you lost your temper with a department head who had failed to submit a performance evaluation for one of his workers?"
• "Try to picture the following scene: Your manager reveals his plans for implementing the organization's new compensation plan. You disagree with his selection and tell him so. He acknowledges your views, but says he believes it is the best plan for the company. You persist in disagreeing and say, "You're not doing what's best for the company—you're doing what's best for you!" What happens next?"

While Michael was evasive in answering Sonia's direct questions, he will have a harder time avoiding responses to the scenarios she's created. He might try saying, "I don't know." But he's going to come across as weak and ineffective. He may come up with an answer that he thinks she wants to hear, but he still has to give a full response. Let's see how Michael might have handled the scenarios posed by Sonia.

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• Posing "What If…" Questions

These answers are better than those Michael provided in response to Sonia's direct questions because Sonia is beginning to get a clearer picture of some of the areas Michael needs to work on to balance his skills. Yet, his answers are still a little bit too general. With an interviewee like Michael, Sonia may be better off employing the third technique for seeking contrary information; that is, posing a series of "What if…" questions. These are verifiable questions, such as the following:

• "Michael, what if I were to ask your manager how you react to department heads who fail to submit performance reviews on time. What do you think he would say?"
• "Select three of the department heads who are supposed to submit performance reviews to you in a timely manner. What if I contacted them and asked how you react when they are late with the reviews? What do you think they would say?"
• "What if I asked your manager to describe a time when a project or assignment didn't turn out the way you had hoped? Which project would he tell me about?"
• "Let's talk a bit about an area in which you could use some improvement. What if I asked your manager about this? What do you think he would tell me?"
• "I'm sure you'll agree that sometimes our intentions are good, but things get out of hand. What if I were to ask your colleagues about a time when this happened with you? Which incident would they describe?"

Upon hearing these questions, Michael is likely to realize that Sonia could easily check with whomever her questions refer to. If he is less than candid, Sonia could conclude that he is hiding something or lying. Therefore, in response to these "What if…" questions, Michael is likely to give comprehensive responses that provide Sonia with the contrary information she needs to make an effective decision. Chances are, if Sonia used a combination of these techniques to seek contrary information, she would have achieved a more balanced picture of Michael and been able to make a more effective hiring decision.

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Study Check 15

• Summary

To get the most out of every interview, concern yourself with the supportive components of encouraging interviewees to talk, actively listening when they ask or answer questions, understanding and interpreting body language, and seeking contrary evidence.

For some applicants and employees, talking to an interviewer can be intimidating and unnerving. They can be encouraged to speak freely through repetition, summarization, the use of key phrases such as "I see" and "I didn't know that," and silence.

Of course, techniques such as these are useful only if you are prepared to actively listen to what interviewees have to say. Active listening will enable you to absorb the greatest amount of information. In this regard, interviewers should devote approximately 70 percent of the interview for actively listening for key information. Active listening is easier to do if there are a minimum number of distractions.

Focusing on the Interviewee

One tool that will help you focus more on what the applicant or employee says is thought speed. Knowing that you can think faster than the other person can speak will enable you to prepare your next question, analyze what the interviewee is saying, take notes, and observe body language.

Body language, which includes all body movements, the use of interpersonal space, the amount of time that elapses between verbal exchanges, eye contact, and body contact, can send meaningful messages during an interview. When a contradiction exists between what is stated verbally and what is being expressed nonverbally, the silent message is often the one that "speaks" the loudest.

Interviewers are cautioned against attempting to universally translate nonverbal communication. Everyone has his or her own pattern of body language and tends to react to a particular situation in the same nonverbal way each time that it occurs. Even though there are no universal translations of any one gesture, people tend to interpret certain movements in a given way.

Seeking Contrary Information

Finally, to avoid getting a one-sided picture of a person, seek contrary information. Sometimes, asking for contrary information can change your evaluation of a person, or it may confirm your earlier views. Whatever the case may be, seeking contrary information by asking direct questions, creating scenarios, and posing "What if…" questions will help you make a more informed decision.

Unit Review

Glossary of Terms

Competency

A competency is a skill, trait, quality, or characteristic that contributes to a person's ability to effectively perform the duties and responsibilities of a job.

Confirmation stage

The confirmation stage allows the interviewer to verify what has been learned thus far. It represents about 5 percent of the entire interview and should be divided between open- and close-ended questions, with a slightly heavier emphasis on open-ended questions. A competency-based question occasionally may be appropriate.

Closing stage

The closing stage is the last-chance stage of the interview. Here, the interviewer can ensure coverage of all relevant areas. It represents approximately 5 percent of the interview and should be devoted to competency-based questions.

Core stage

The core stage is the most substantive segment. It represents about 85 percent of the interview, with as much as 65 percent of the interview devoted to competency-based questions. The remaining 20 percent is divided between the four other types of questions: open-ended, hypothetical, probing, and close-ended. Open-ended questions should receive about 8 percent of the emphasis; probing and hypothetical questions should receive shared emphasis of about 5 percent each; and close-ended questions should carry the balance.

Introductory stage

The introductory stage represents about 3 percent of the interview and is intended to help nervous applicants and employees feel at ease as well as allow interviewers to start assessing their job suitability. These objectives are best accomplished by posing two or three open-ended questions. This is the most effective type of question to ask at this stage because interviewees generally will begin to talk and will relax more while the interviewer actively listens to their responses and starts to make some preliminary decisions.

Rapport-building stage

The brief rapport-building stage (approximately 2 percent), which is intended to put the interviewee at ease and enable the interviewer to identify the format for the rest of the interview, sets the tone for the rest of the meeting. Close-ended questions that are casual in nature and that focus on topics not related to the job can accomplish this goal.