Intercultural Competence, Ch.5: Communication

[excerpted from, Intercultural Competence ?2023 ]

Our Big Question: What is intercultural communication, and what are its challenges?

Of all the skill sets and knowledge bases we seek to obtain, in order to reach any measure of intercultural competence, communication across cultural divides is key. Culture and language are inextricably linked, after all, and in order to achieve any facility with one, we must also focus our efforts on the other. And yet, most of us cannot learn more than a few languages (a polyglot, typically not more than 10-12), any more than we can learn the features of each culture – so how do we go about this?

Often, of course, English serves as our current common language (French, a century ago; perhaps Chinese in the future), or we engage interpreters to come to our rescue. Even so, communication styles and speech patterns differ widely, body language and facial expressions are tricky at best, and there are other considerations as well.

Let me give you some examples of variations in communication styles. English is generally direct and to the point (though among the British, less so); conciseness is valued and theme expressed, speakers talk one at a time with a pause in between, and language style reflects individualism (I/my). With Latinate languages, detours away from the main point are expected, to maintain interest and politeness; talking over one another is most common, with overlap rather than gap between speakers. Hebrew falls between English and Latinate: mostly direct, with many short sidebars. Arabic is a high-context language, with speakers unconsciously assuming that listeners already understand the subtext; thus, little detail is given and it may seem that only half of the story is there, as others in that linguistic group would have already completed the meaning in their minds. Finnish, a nearly unique language (not Indo-European, used only in Finland, Estonia, and a few small groups in western Russia) is very direct and succinct with no small-talk; long pauses between speakers allow what’s said to be politely considered. Asian communication styles tend to be very indirect, circular, and floral or poetic, in order to avoid being perceived as too assertive or egotistic which would cause loss of respect; the collective ‘we/our’ (even ‘our’ wife, for example) is common.

You may ask, if we aren’t focused on mastering many languages, what’s the point of this? But even if speakers are using a common language such as English, they’ll still tend to follow the communication style most familiar to them. Can you imagine, for example, conversation between an Italian and a Finn? The former will continue to talk, with an expectation that the latter will simply jump in, while the Finn will wait forever for a polite break that never comes. Or in a conversation between an American and a Korean in which the Korean may feel insulted by the American’s bluntness, while the American is likely to feel frustrated as the Korean uses all manner of flowery and polite language before ever getting to the point.

And so, we learn general communication styles, which often reflect larger cultural features – such as collectivism vs individualism.

First, we must learn whether the communication style of a culture is low or high context, as mentioned in the above example of Arabic. Low context is presumed to hold essentially the same meaning no matter where it’s used, and is consistent with nonverbal cues; it’s highly structured and detailed, often meant literally, tends to be direct and factually-based, and can easily disagree or decline. High context, on the other hand, is contextually dependent, and the same message may differ widely in meaning according to where or to whom it’s given. It tends to be more succinct because members of that culture or language group, and setting, would already inherently understand the subtext or context, and can seem ambiguous in talking around the point or avoiding the use of ‘no’, for example.

Communication styles are further classified as direct or indirect, and elaborate or succinct, as seen in several of our examples. Language use can be person-centered and informal, or context-centered and more formal; self-enhancing (typical of individualistic cultures) vs self-effacing (collectivist; ‘don’t be the tallest tree’); instrumental or functional vs affective, meant to convey emotion; oriented to outcome vs to the communicative process; explicit or implicit. Further, the communicative focus can be on either the sender or listener; for example, it’s common for me as a product of American culture to restate my message or ask the listener if he/she understands, because I as speaker am responsible for communicating my meaning clearly; a Chinese person, however, would never ask questions because this would be insulting, and would go home and look up the information instead – as the responsibility of understanding is on the listener.

Politeness in communication is another area of cultural understanding, as we also saw in our examples; is it polite to wait for the other to pause in his or her speech before contributing, or to break in so that there are no gaps in the conversation? Is it polite to respond immediately or to first consider what the other has just said? What about small talk – conversational softener and relationship builder, or superficial and a waste of time? How about privacy vs inclusion? Are compliments friendly or invasive, or manipulative? What about the use of humor, or irony? In many cultures, humor is not used in communication as it trivializes, while in others, it eases tension; irony simply isn’t understood in a multitude of cultures that don’t use it and will take what’s being said as literal instead – and likely insulting.

We must learn and be aware of what’s considered polite, when speaking across cultures – and if we don’t know (say, in a multicultural setting in which we simply can’t know this for all cultures represented), err on the side of caution. Irony, humor, small talk: out – though do use a certain amount of softening. (Attempts at humor often fail to cross cultural lines, at any rate.) Direct / indirect, or private / inclusive, or explicit / implicit, for example: aim for middle ground.

In fact, aiming for somewhere in the center of any such continuum is a high skill of intercultural communication. This, we can learn and practice – but first, we must be aware that such distinctions even exist. So now you are.

Our perception, interpretation, and evaluation of communication across cultural lines is also essential, and an area in which we can hone our skills. We must seek contextual cues – do you already know what’s being discussed, or what the speaker thinks or feels about it? Does this conversation build on prior knowledge or experience? Is there an implicit hierarchy in the conversation – staff member / manager in a business meeting, senior / junior scholars at a conference, age / generation differential, host / guest? We also consider intonation, pitch, and volume, bearing in mind that this varies from one culture to another; within the same communication, however, we can take note if a speaker changes his pitch, lowers her volume, or anything that contrasts with that person’s dominant style. We want to ensure, if possible, that we communicate and understand not only the ‘what’ of a topic, information or facts, but also the ‘how’, process and response – and the ‘why’, or meaning. And any time that meaning is even slightly less than clear, or you feel less than 100% certain that you understood (or even when you feel confident): ask for clarification. Ask another listener afterward if he/she understood the meaning in the same way that you think you did. And, reflect later – revisit that conversation in your mind, to see if there’s any possible alternate meaning.

There are many sources of cultural barriers in communication. The first is simply one of vocabulary, in which the social meaning of a word may differ from one society to the next (one of the reasons, as earlier referenced, that UK and US have been famously described as ‘one people separated by a common language’). Other sources for potential misunderstandings include how things are said: speech acts, speech act sequence, and behavior sequences; organization and conventions of dialogue, as in our examples above; choice of topic, which may be unfamiliar to one party, mean something different, or be sensitive or controversial; direct vs indirect communication styles as mentioned; register (formal or informal language); nonverbal factors, famously easy to misinterpret; and, culture-specific values, attitudes, and behaviors.

About nonverbal communication – this is an area rife with ethnocentrism, as we all commonly assume that we understand the nonverbal cues of others. Body language, gestures, facial expression, eye contact, the use of touch, sense of personal space, posture, use of silence – best to minimize your own nonverbal communication, and to consider that you likely don’t understand that of the other after all. Not making eye contact, for example, can mean dishonesty, distraction, or respect for a senior, or something else entirely. Touch may be a sign of relating or sincerity (Brazilian, Italian) or perceived as violating (German, Swedish). That ‘thumbs-up’ of encouragement to some could be an obscene gesture to another. (In Korea, the ‘come hither’ crook of a finger or inward wave of a hand is generally demeaning, only used with young children – or a dog.) Differences in personal space can be amusing, as one person unconsciously keeps moving closer while the other just as unconsciously continues to step back, and they dance across the room; it can also be uncomfortable, however, and easily misunderstood if one is perceived as too close – or too distant. Movement is another area: is it common to ‘talk with one’s hands’ (Italy, all of Latin America) or not (all of Asia)?

Cultural differences in concepts of time also affect cross-cultural communication. Time can be perceived as monochronic or polychronic (and we can learn this about any cultural group); monochronic cultures are task-oriented, generally one by one in sequence; they’re planners, organized, efficient, tend to start tasks well in advance of deadlines and methodically progress, as we see in Lewis’ linear-active category. Polychronic cultures, on the other hand, are relationship-oriented; they multi-task and are especially flexible, with little or no advance planning, seen as both multi-active and reactive in the Lewis system.

I gave an example of this earlier, in the Korean style of last-minute event organization which was difficult for those from monochronic cultures to accept as not being ‘behind-schedule’. In another experience, a conference was organized by a Germanic-Swiss team and hosted in Italy; the Swiss organizers had planned a precise schedule that they worked to keep on time, while the Italian hosts felt it far more important to have a coffee and build relationship, after which all tasks could be done more or less simultaneously. Near-disaster, and a great deal of tension, but with cross-cultural communication regarding differing concepts of time, they were able to reach a compromise.

So, in this especially challenging area of intercultural communication, how can we obtain the necessary skills?

As with anything else, we build a knowledge base that includes cultural norms (for example, do women speak freely if men are present? Are elders, or senior-ranking, expected to speak first, or last? Do children speak at all?), history and conflict, beliefs and values. We work to increase our sensitivity (aim for middle ground; don’t misinterpret nonverbal communication, and minimize your own use) and our empathy (look for commonalities). We become comfortable with being wrong, or certain, and let go of that all too common need to be right. We adapt a communication style that’s flexible, so that we can more effectively communicate with those whose style is very different from our own, and we become more adaptable, in order to better compromise and find middle ground. And as always, we must be on our guard against our ethnocentrism (our way isn’t better nor any norm), and any stereotypes we may unconsciously hold about the culture of the other.

In short: prepare, observe, compare, reflect, inquire, respect, empathize, and take risks.

As starting points, we can be willing to learn a few words or phrases in the language of the other. We can ask experts on that culture and communication style about common problems and traps, challenges between their culture and our own. We can check our understanding, and also that of the other person. We must be willing to laugh at ourselves, and to always apologize as needed for our misunderstandings and miscommunication, even when a simple mistake; what seems simple to you may be insulting to the other. And as always, we learn to reflect on each interaction and experience afterward, making it our habit to assess and consider whether we understood accurately after all.

The question often arises: who adapts? Does the visitor in another country try to adapt to local ways, or do locals as hosts try to understand that the guest’s ways are simply different?

Yes. To both.

If you’re a guest in another country, it’s your responsibility to learn and adapt – while locals will typically be patient and understanding of your mistakes, and greatly appreciate your attempts. If you’re hosting someone from another country or culture, this responsibility becomes theirs, while it’s yours to help them understand, to bridge that gap. If meeting neutrally (e.g., at an international conference or event in a country where neither of you is a member of the local culture), everyone must compromise and meet in some relatively neutral middle-ground.

In the bigger picture, however, wherein you’re working to become interculturally competent overall, this responsibility is surely yours. You’re aiming for expertise, after all.

Intercultural Competence, by Anne Hilty, ?2023

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EXERCISES:

Discussion or Contemplation: In communication with members of my own culture, what are my strengths and weaknesses?

Writing or Recording: What additional challenges do I expect to face in cross-cultural communication, and what steps can I take now to develop better skills?

Further Reading: The Six Steps to Great Intercultural Communication