If I asked you go to the convenience store and bring me a bento, what would you say?

In my work as a management researcher and consultant, I investigate the factors that influence the behavior and decision-making of managers, particularly managers in Japanese corporations and organizations. My primary area interest is how Japanese culture affects management and business processes, however, culture as a concept can be difficult to define or understand, so it is usually more efficient to look at certain manifestations of culture to explain various management behaviors. In this first part of a two-part article series, I will explore cultural manifestations of “power” and how power is used within organizations, particularly in Japan.

The term “power” may be defined as, “the ability to change and influence the behavior of other people”. The use of power affects all of us, regardless of whether we are managers, employees, parents, students, or members of a sports team – having the ability to influence the actions of others is an important component of human interaction. We have all been influenced by people who guide, educate, and care for us. At the same time, we feel responsible for those we have power over both personally and professionally. It may also be said that power forms the basis of how we work with others in an organization.

Power is based on two fundamental principles: rewards and coercion. That is, the proverbial “carrot and stick”. Rewards can influence people very easily. We all expect rewards for doing things that we would not normally do or would prefer not to do, such as report to an office five days a week and work long hours. In business, rewards are typically financial, but recognition, positive feedback, and opportunities to make decisions can also be rewards.

Coercion is the opposite of rewards. Coercion is the right or ability to impose negative consequences on others for unwanted behavior. Coercion is often confused with punishment, but its primary goal is to minimize wrongdoing and adjust behavior. In a company environment, one way coercion is executed is by defining clear rules and the consequences of breaking those rules. Also, most governmental laws are based on coercion – if citizens break the law, the government can enforce penalties, such as speeding tickets, fines, or even jail time. ?

Important Power Types that Shape Our Behavior

There are a variety of power types based on reward and coercion that shape our behavior. In business, the most relevant power type is typically position power. Position power is largely based on job descriptions, laws, and contracts. Position power defines the responsibilities and authority that come with a given position in a company. For example, a marketing manager who is responsible for a budget of 20 million yen and has two staff members whom she is responsible for can tell her staff what to do at work.

Position power can be given to managers or taken away by the company, as it is derived from the position and organization rather than a particular person. Companies typically define the range and extent of position power clearly and provide detailed descriptions to all employees and managers. Rewards and coercion are in play here: performing well and in line with the rules oftentimes leads to a promotion or raise while ignoring or breaking the rules may lead to being fired.

The opposite of position power is emotional power. Emotional power is the part of human relationships that encourages individuals to change their behavior based on their feelings for another person or not wanting to jeopardize a relationship. With this type of power, rewards may be love or attention, and coercion may be neglect or disregard.

Emotional power is something that every human being uses. For example, parents may adapt their behavior to ensure the well-being of their children, or an employee may help a co-worker complete a difficult task at work because they are friends. However, unlike position power, which is usually well defined and understood, emotional power is often used unconsciously and can be applied in a wide variety of ways. In addition, emotional power is not limited to the workplace since it is derived from interpersonal relationships with rather than a position.

Cultural Preferences of Power Types

Of course, different power types can manifest in different ways across cultures – sometimes these ways are obvious, but sometimes not. In many Western countries, position power is generally the basis of any business activity. Within companies each employee receives a long, detailed individual employment contract which specifies duties, responsibilities, and reporting lines. Above all, these contracts ensure that everyone knows exactly what they expected and allowed to do, and what is forbidden. Most people in Western countries believe that this reduces abuse, discrimination, and conflict. Power structures do not just happen randomly, instead, they are defined, communicated, and closely supervised.

For this reason, Western companies tend to ignore or downplay emotional power. This is due to a common belief that work processes must be professional and not influenced by personal relationships. In some countries, such as the USA, this system is particularly strict. In these countries, any type of harassment, abuse of power, or inappropriate interpersonal relationships are often dealt with harshly and can lead to terminations, even for top executives.

Nevertheless, position power has many advantages. All processes within the company are laid out clearly so employees know what their roles and responsibilities are as well as what their managers are allowed/not allowed to ask them to do. Furthermore, power stays within the organization and does not invade personal life. On the other hand, the focus on position power often leads to neglect of human relationships which thereby reduces trust and loyalty.

Power Type and Leadership Style Preferences Depend on Our Origins

Preferences for different power types are certainly strongly influenced by country and company cultures. And even if we are familiar with various power types, the power type we find most comfortable with or effective is usually linked to our origins. This influences our behavior both as leaders and as followers.

When I discuss this topic with my students, I first ask them what type of power a professor has. The answer from a European perspective is simple: A professor only has position power. It is limited to getting the students to sit for exams, write papers, and so on. This power is very precisely defined by university regulations, but it ends the very minute the class or course is over.

But does a professor also have emotional power? To find out I ask my students a hypothetical question:

“What would you say, if I - as your professor - asked you go to the convenience store and bring me a bento (Japanese lunchbox)?”

Of course, I have never asked any of my students to get me a bento, but I still want them to answer honestly. In the answers provided by the students; certain cultural differences become very evident:

Sweden: “I don't think that's my duty as a student, and to be honest, I find this type of request rather inappropriate. I would prefer it if you did not exceed your authority. I would not like to have to complain to the university administration.”

USA: “Well, if it's customary in Japan for students to get bentos for their professors, then I can do that too. But I would surely not do this in the United States.”

France: “I'd be happy to get you a bento as long as I can buy one for myself as well at your expense. No problem, then.”

China: “Well…. I've been in your class for a while, we have a good relationship and I like you, so I guess, it's okay.”

Japanese: “Of course, I will get you a bento, professor. Would you like a coffee too?”

These very different answers amuse my students immensely. Not only do they find it funny how different their answers are, but also how the answers come to them so spontaneously and naturally. They also learn that the preference for or acceptance of different power types is strongly connected to national culture of origin. In the classroom of a Western country, position power is dominant while in the classroom of many Asian countries emotional power also plays an important role.

Part 2 of this article can be found here: https://www.dhirubhai.net/pulse/learning-good-cross-cultural-leader-parissa-haghirian