Hypersonia Scrams

The reality of regular and common hyper speed flight is nearer than most think. The rapid advances in technologies by different financial, infrastructural and systems innovations, making the vision of Hypersonia coming into fruition. A flurry of pre-pandemic actions and activities are getting accelerated as the connectomes, companies, colleges, cities, and countries are not content with the status quo.

The chips – hypersonic engines being designed and made in these crucibles. The power of entrepreneurialism and governmentality coming together for solving problems. Addressing the issues of the present by not being nostalgic about the past, but creating the future. Forward-thinking and looking ahead is the strategy for streaming for preventing stagnation.

Scramjetry is the art and science of designing and making practical airbreathing hypersonic engines. Capable of powering flights in the excess of Mach 5. Innovation is using accumulated and new knowledge to create multiple designs, in so far, they are in line with the original purpose. Airbreathers are coming in different composites and forms, adding to the emerging fervour.

Adjacent and in-situ innovations in aerospace, digital, fuel, materials, and mechanical technologies and systems, contributing to and reinforcing each other. Creating different components and combinations, suitable for powering the future.

Entrepreneurial innovators and inventors are making these happen. These can come from either the private or public sector. The former, however, working in companies are more suitable for transitioning R&D into useable products and services. The process of innovation often involves reconciling opposing professional views.

Engineers have a mindset of craftmanship. Building up quickly and learning from the feedback of observing the actual technology working in real-life. On the other hand, scientists favour comprehension. Learning the basic operating tenets, and then applying the knowledge for making. Both forms of doing are hampered by the capacity & depth of available or extant knowledge and equipment.

The craftsman mindset, however, seems more forward-doing. Not waiting for the right atmosphere or all information to be available before creating. Both complement each other. Transformative making and servicing are by combining both forms in the right mixture for advancing.

R&D in both private and public laboratories and universities leans towards comprehension mindset. Mostly doing basic and applied research. The innovation structure where this aligns tightly with downstream developmental and commercial research, ends up faster and better for quickly navigating transitions and making transformations.

The companies, cities, and countries where craftmanship are rightly mixed with comprehension attain well. Such innovation structure succeeds and thrives better, when the constituents within and without a discrete or distinct unit and distributed ones, are well fired up and well oiled to function and perform in an open manner. Openness requires thoughtful and proactive rules and regulations that permit both individual and corporate navigation through the maze.

The creation of a fruitful and fervent placial innovation structure is not a given. The successful ones have a history of always innovating. Often unplanned, but sparking by founding or keystone and constituting organisations. These use organisational strategies for directing innovations toward profitable and purposeful ends.

Planning at the edges of the open market. Like purposively designed mobile telephone pylons sending out waves to individual recipients, who use their similarly designed smartphones for personal or corporate but healthy actions and activities. Purposive independence guides and guards, decision-making. Contributing to the fruitfulness and fervour of the wholesome.

The governing power resides in the spectra, which are transmitted by linkages of pylons, in-situ the invincible structure. Carrying the rules and regulations for determining access control, functions, and privileges. For instance, a 5G smartphone uses different available spectra for streaming High-Definition videos, and becoming a more intelligent sensor capable of making better contributions to the whole structure. Less compatible devices, however, cannot access and perform in the same way.

The services and technologies they set out to create and make based on founding vision. And with the in-built flexibility by mastering the market, making the necessary detours and détente required for perpetuating the vision. And for starting up or spinning out adjacent, integral, and tangential products and services for staying afloat and alive. Surviving and thriving.

The sustaining of the innovativeness of a place is key for long term success. Constantly oiling the structure to fire regularly. It can be a difficult one, as it requires getting the right mix of different factors in a timely basis. A temporal loss of an entrepreneurial spark can result in a gradual decline.

Renewal is possible when the spark is either revived or replaced. The health of the overarching and constituent structure is more essential for regeneration. The key is ensuring and promoting constant Startupship. Sprouting always to create the better and the new.

The powering of Hypersonia is by Scramjetry. Airbreathing engines using suitable and highly capable gas or liquid fuels for propulsion. The vision is for hyper speed horizontal take-off and landing aeroplanes. And with the suitable business models and technological systems, combining earth-bound and space-fare flights. Amongst the many combinations and compositions that Scramjetry affords, an examination of the ScramLACE[1] design is part of the original purpose.

The interlude is not often the reality. Innovating to achieve the original purpose is the real deal. A radical (meaning transformative) innovation often takes a detour to get to its destination. It is a distraction, helpful or unhelpful, which inadvertently delays the reality and realisation of a purpose.

The Fervour

The last period of this interesting but pivotal year is revealing different innovations. The making of hypersonics is not an exception. Innovations are ramping up in different forms. Various technologies from interesting individuals and places. All contributing to getting to Hyperspacia.

The Australian start-up Hypersonix Launch Systems coming out with an improved Scramjet Powered Accelerator for Reusable Technology AdvaNcement (SPARTAN). Encouragingly, the start-up is considering pivoting to designing for earthbound hypersonic flights. Designed originally as a dual-fuelled hydrogen/hydrocarbon Mach 12+ scramjet vehicle, the improvement uses ‘green’ hydrogen. This is one of the three forms of producing hydrogen.

The so called ‘brown or black’ hydrogen is typically made from the catalytic decomposition of methane and other similar gases. Or as a by-product of making ethylene. It is the cheapest and the most abundant means of producing the fuel-gas. Green hydrogen is by making from hydrocarbons using renewables for powering the catalytic process, instead of the widely available power sources.

The ‘blue’ hydrogen is making from non-hydrocarbon sources using renewables. Typically, this is breaking down water into its constituent elements, or siphoning the gas from the freely available source in the atmosphere. This is regarded as cleaner even though it consumes more calories for the same amount of contents. Whilst, using a renewable such as wind turbines for powering can make possible large-scale production, brown hydrogen is still the most cost-effective. Followed by green and then blue. Such approach pushes towards the two latter forms.

Innovation is about making the best of the present and creating a better future. Creating a forward-compatible hypersonic engines capable of using extant and rapidly greening liquid fuels, and the becoming available future ones, is a sound design. And breakthroughs in chemo-catalysis and photocatalysis can help in lowering the temperature required for breaking chemical bonds, thus reducing the use of much power. The start-up Electrofluidsystems, is developing a fuel cell technology for generating electricity for powering microturbines.

A ScramLACE engine airbreathing for stratospheric ascent is a transformative design. Using a suitable heat exchanger for liquefying and on-board storage of hydrogen and oxygen for terminal ascent into space. Hence, it is called Liquefied Air Cycle Engine (LACE)[2]. Acting as a typical rocket in this terminal flight. And coming back to earth as a reusable vehicle that can be used regularly.

The recent unveiling of Ravn X by the Huntsville-based innovative start-up – Aevum is an interesting one. The founder, an entrepreneur with a moving personal story creates the technology system for rapid lobbing of satellites into space for prompt global communication. This is a combinatorial innovation.

The futuristic mothership is a turbojet-powered big supersonic drone. This carries a two-stage liquid propellant-fuelled rocket for terminal ascent into the low earth orbit. The innovation is reusability. Using the easily maintained and rapidly turn-around jet-powered drone for almost regular flights and as a cost-differential. This seems to give it an edge over the equally cost-reducing Space X liquid-fuelled vertically launch and landing rockets. And over other purely rocket-launchers.

The company has almost a billion dollar of already signed contracts. The US Air Force as the lead customer selected it together with two other rocket-makers under the Agile Small Launch Operational Normaliser programme. Which is like a programme that DARPA organised, but produced no winner. Astra, the Alaska-based start-up that was a leading contender getting close to testing its prototype, though.  

Aevum has demonstrated canny systems engineering talent. The technologies, are, nonetheless, purely innovative. The about Mach 3 drone is slower than the legendary Mach 3+ SR 71. Even though, the promised turnaround time of less than three hours with fewer personnel, goes well over that of the Blackbird’s. It is, nonetheless, still slower than turning around a modern jetliner.

The drone is not even faster than the A12, albeit an air-launched drone. All these technologies were created in the 1950s. Achieving such with a bigger drone is an accomplishment. Even that, the supersonic Concorde and other defunct similar were far bigger. And its difference with Stratolaunch or Virgin Orbit, is the faster speed of the mothership. The latter are subsonic.

The first stage firing of the terminal rocket is airbreathing. The second final stage. Is however, using on board liquid oxygen for burning jet fuel. The terminal rocket, is nonetheless, still not recoverable. Adding to the growing problem of littering space with hypersonic projectiles, even as the volume of objects are ramping up. A claim that the rocket burns up is being made, but little detail is provided as to how. Perhaps, using on-board thrusters to re-enter and earth’s atmosphere and burning up by the sheer force of the shearing heat generated by such re-entry.

The Air Force, nonetheless, is demonstrating leadership again. And using such agency for catalysing the development of a fully horizontal ground take-off and landing aeroplane, capable of earthbound and space fare flights is in the right direction. Something which, such a vehicle powered by a ScramLACE can accomplish.

A review of a rapidly growing and updated database by Space Fund, of rapidly emerging space launchers, reveals a preponderance of purely vertical rocket-launchers out of close to known 160 companies. Few are horizontal reusable spaceplanes. Few considering earthbound hypersonic flights. Even amongst these, no more than four are airbreathers. These include the usual ones such as Hypersonix and Reaction Engines.

The others are the following. The Canadian Space Engines Systems using an airbreathing supersonic engine called DASS capable of maximum of Mach 4.5. Named after its inventor, this is a precooled air turbojet engine using a heat exchanger cooled with boron nanoparticles & hydrogen. The engine itself is not hypersonic. More details are provided down the line about this interesting development. As it is being further developed with German technologies under the EU-funded Stratofly hypersonic programme.

The Japanese are. PD Aerospace is by an entrepreneur. A suborbital horizontal take-off and landing design. Using a single airbreathing composite dual-mode pulse detonation jet & rocket engine using regular jet fuel. Another is Space Walker, a university spinout. Seems a rocket-powered LNG/on-board liquid oxygen-fuelled vertical-take-off horizontal landing suborbital plane. Both are rocket powered and there are little details about the start-ups and the types of rockets or fuels they are using.  

Joining Hypersonix in Australia is Enter Space using rockets founded by an entrepreneur. Now it is a three-stage horizontal take-off and landing design. A rocket-powered stratospheric mothership carries a smaller suborbital rocket-powered aircraft-like one. This third stage vehicle carries the payload into space on a rocket. There is a plan in place to make a fully reusable single stage vehicle, even as it is unclear the type of fuel and rocket being used.  

Orbital Access in the UK is based at the spaceport in Prestwick, the location of a new spaceport in Scotland. It is business now, like Virgin Orbit, using a big Gulfstream-like plane for lobbing an undercarriage borne rocket. For lobbing objects into low orbit. It has a roadmap for developing a reusable single stage airbreathing spaceplane as time goes on. The nature of its engine, and that of the rocket unclear.

Polaris Aerospace in Germany is a product of the German Space Agency (DLR). A horizontal take-off and landing rocketplane. It is unclear if it is airbreathing or not. A subscale demonstrator was tested using kerosene-fuelled turbojet engines at subsonic speeds. There is, however, a roadmap for it becoming a fully operational orbital plane, as time goes on.

The US as usual, has the most of spaceplane start-ups. There is the stealthy Radian Aerospace with a rocket-powered sled-launched vehicle, that is not listed in the database. More is known about Exodus Space Corporation, an early-stage start-up. Using a horizontal take-off & landing two stage to orbit spaceplane design. Its patent dating back to 2010, shows a normal jet-powered subsonic ascent of the mothership carrying the smaller spaceplane.

At a high altitude, the mothership switches off its jet engines, and then uses a hybrid (hydrogen peroxide and solid propellants in phases) rocket for orbital reach. From there the smaller vehicle detaches, powering into orbit using a liquid fuelled rocket. Both vehicles descend back to earth using their jet engines.

The smaller opens its jet inlets for a powered descent on a tarmac. Not purely airbreathing, but ongoing work on developing supersonic turbojet and hypersonic ramjet propulsions, point to powering the mothership by such in the future.

IO Aircraft is a pure play airbreather. Promising at least Mach 5 flight based on two main engine designs. The first a turbine-ramjet combined cycle engine and a scramjet one. It is brandishing up to 5 different earthbound and space bound hypersonic plane designs. There is, however, no news about the current operations of the designs.  

Rocketplane Global is like a cat with many lives. A product of DARPA, NASA, and international cooperation. Its new life is using the spaceplane for carrying payload into space. A lowkeying from the original plan for a single stage passenger-carrying orbiter. Now, it is a two-stage to orbit system, with the main vehicle using jet engines for gaining altitude. From there, an aerial fuel tanker fills it with liquid oxygen for powering a rocket to the suborbital. A separate rocket detaches for the final delivery.   

Little is known about Deywoss One, but there is an interesting one.

The Space Railway Corporation is promising to use graphene-based carbon nanotubules to build a 300 thousand miles of track from earth to space. Upon which the spaceplane rides on. So futuristic that one imagines that the envelope of nanotechnology is being pushed to the extent that self-building tubules are arising and escalating from an earthbound ‘bowl’ to space. Even that requires a great deal of imagination to use humanly invincible tubules for building such an infrastructure.

Notwithstanding, the flurry of activities, albeit meagre, point to the allure for reusability and using aeroplane-like crafts for spacefaring. The fact that only one or two of the motley crew, is (are) a pure SSTO craft is disappointing. Most are two stage to orbit often requiring using big solid fuelled rockets as boosters. Not really an inherent advancement. Considering that Lockheed made and tested eight times the rocket-powered SSTO X-33 demonstrator for the Air Force in 1990s.

All in all, there are only two pure Scramjetry designs. And for most, it is unclear whether these spaceplane designs are using either gas or liquid fuels for their rockets. As airbreathing SABRE turborocket and Fenris rocket are. Innovations in fuel technologies are one means by which some rocket-makers are using as cost-differentials. A recent one is NewRocket.

The Israeli start-up uses the common jet kerosene and mixing with proprietary chemicals to create a hypergolic – self-igniting gel. The viscosity gives a high density of calories and joules; thus, the engine is more throttleable as it not solid. Making possible an airbreathing earthbound aeroplane-like hypersonic flights. Such potentials and possibilities attracting investment from an entrepreneurial British venture fund.

Surely scramjetry is abounding. Even as knowledge created in one country is being used in another. A recent example is the so called airbreathing sodaramjet. This is an obliquely detonated ramjet created by NASA, with a potential for a maximum of Mach 15 flight. A normal ramjet is capable of maximum Mach 8. And uses subsonic air combustion. Boeing recently got a contract from the Navy to produce airbreathing hypersonic cruise missiles with its dormant solid ramjet expertise.

A Sodaramjet is a form of a mechano-chemical reactor-jet engine. Not too dissimilar from a Rotating Detonation Engine, which uses axial detonation. On the surface, the oblique detonation innovation is to mimic the performance of a scramjet, with a promise of less fuel consumption. Giving supersonic combustion at a lower Mach speed than the usual in a typical scramjet.

Subtle changes to the combustor, inlets and fuel injector help in amplifying the first incoming air wave to supersonic speeds, and for creating subsequent reinforcing second or third waves. Thus, proving that turbulence and twirls can be harnessed for producing continuous detonation. A feat which the idea of a unitary RDE-scramjet system can achieve.  

Different scramjet engine designs have proven speeds close to Mach 14 in real test-flights. Even as simulations by computation fluid dynamics make possible a maximum of Mach 25, as in the Stratoshot. The wind tunnel-based simulated experiments by the Chinese scientists, however, can only reach Mach 9. Not even close to the established real-life performance of a scramjet.

Moreover, the earlier NASA[3] experiments and simulations did not attain a sustained hyper speed performance with an oblique detonation ramjet. The best was for five minutes, thus making it suitable as an accelerator. And this Chinese iteration is not showing an improvement in this regard. This pales into insignificance with the world’s best performing scramjet.

The one by Northrop Grumman is firing for at least 30 minutes, and there is room for improvements. A one hour sustained firing is possible as craftmanship is being mixed with comprehension. Such an engine, even firing for 30 minutes and performing close to the proven Mach 14, powers in cruise mode to any destination across the globe under one hour.

The quest for ground horizontal take-off and landing hypersonic aircrafts is closer than ever. Making composite engines helps in getting there. Airbreathing ramjets, rockets, scramjets, and turbojets are seamlessly integrated with each other for firing as a unit. A ScramLACE design makes possible a single engine unit for an aeroplane-like spacefaring. Firing either in series or sequence.

The peak performance of extant jet engines calls for such advancement. As it was since SR 71 in the1950s, so it is today with Ravn X’s drone. Airbreathing SABRE turborocket and Hermeus’s turboramjet are the almost proven few and far in between composites. Not encouraging out of the possible 130 variations the Marquardt Corporation envisioned in the 1970s. Getting there requires entrepreneurship.

Entrepreneurs are more driven by purpose than profits. The founder of Aevum is by such. The adventure of creating the better is the thrill. A closer look at the activities of the start-up points to the possibility of frontiering. It shows doings with Scramjetry. Such opens the possibility of faster Ravn X’s drone in the future. Compositing its turbojets with a ScramLACE design creates a reusable drone capable of even more regular space flights.

The thrill of an adventure drives entrepreneurs. The co-founder of the defunct Vector Launch, a co-candidate of Aevum in the Air Force programme, is making a comeback. Not deterred by failure, he has created Phantom Space – a new start-up aiming to make launching ever cheaper. Considering a SSTO design powered by composite Scramjetry is recommended for this rebirth.

The quests by entrepreneurs to create, make or service better create the jet-age.

Interlude to Innovation

The trajectory of an innovation process is often a long arc. Of series and sequences of incremental business, organisational, product and process inventions snowballing into a breakthrough. Such transformation makes a technology transition possible, and even faster.

Clashes between and reconciliation of craftmanship and comprehension mindsets, condition, and shape both the transition and the eventual transformation. Being led and sparked by entrepreneurial engineers and scientists in both private and public sectors.

A leap of imagination leads to an epiphany. Independence ensures collaborative doing and making. And industry ensures scaling up. The innovation process involves basic, applied, developmental and commercial research. Happening as in division of actions amongst various private and public organisations. Entrepreneurs leading the charge.

The development[4] of jetry has these elements. With the added dosages of organisational & professional rivalries, geopolitics, and war. Examining deeper than that in the last essay of this series. The global leadership of jet engine making is with both the US and UK. The former with two large companies: General Electric (GE) and Pratt & Whitney (P&W). The latter with Rolls Royce (RR). These had the head start alongside early but now defunct German upstarts.

In the US, the Army Air Corp tested organic jet designs with the industry coming up with prototypes. Even before the design of Frank Whittle was transferred to the US. Yet, institutional reticence prevents large adoption. The invincibility of the performance of a jet engine was one reason. And an extant mindset informed by using propeller engines and inadequate and historical knowledge of the science of jetry, another. The latter as only suitable for land-based power generation.

A leap of imagination breakthrough institutional present management mindset. An innovative intrapreneur Vladimir Pavlenko an American citizen and a German immigrant about seven years before the start of the WWII proposed using an axial compression gas turbine design for flight. The Army took it to NACA headed by the venerable Vannevar Bush, who used MIT as an advisor.

Th history of innovation is littered with erudite and trusted experts misjudging the viability of a technology. This was not different. Insularity and myopia rejected the idea. The review was damming. Bush’s decision is not dissimilar to his later objection to the Moonshot, as Dwight Eisenhower, on the ground that an accelerated development would be costly. In fairness, his fault in this case, was over trusting an incomplete academic knowledge over that of an experimental craftsman.

P&W led by the entrepreneurial Frederick Rentschler on the request of the Air Corp, was reluctant to make a jet engine based on Pavlenko’s design. An early chance for a US-based pure-play engine maker to pioneer jetry was spurned. The verdict by MIT, the decider. Even with Bush’s credentials as the co-founder of Raytheon, the arch-organiser of wartime research & propeller aerospace industry, and the ‘engineer of America’s century’, the charge of myopia sticks. He could have trusted the idea and its imaginer, as he did with the scientists during WWII. The imminence of war influential.

Airframers employed Pavlenko, and made him to work on other aircraft technologies, but he persisted working on his design as a past time. These, as the extant engine makers, were enshrined in the propeller mindset. And the perennial issue of being dependent on the military for direction, influential.

Douglas did not persist further as the MIT’s verdict was taken on its face value. And accepted an Air Corp’s contracts to use Pavlenko’s knowledge for developing a supercharger. Which boosted the performance of extant propeller-engine, by redirecting and using exhaust as the second air in-flow into the combustor. A technology which, nonetheless, reinforces the complacent mindset – as to enhance the performance of a propeller engine.

Moving to Northrop just before WWII, Pavlenko met a receptive atmosphere. Corporate finance and research, built prototypes, which the Navy refused to adopt. As ‘fire-spitting’ engines are not suitable for wood-laden carrier decks. The prevalent present management thinking did not see metal-clad ships coming soon.

Early airframers had an integrated design mindset. Those in Britain, Germany and America tried their hands, on making jet engines in-house. Lockheed joined the others in this quest. During the war, Pavlenko, now employed at the company, continued an organic jet design started by a departed steam turbine engineer. This did not pan out. Perhaps, it was difficult to reverse the already ingrained land-use specifications.

The supercharger interlude, though, was an innovation process. As it helped in boosting the power outputs of extant engines – including those for electric power generation. It however, inadvertently contributed to reinforcing another mindset that turbines are only suitable for land-based use and for enhancing propeller aircrafts.

The use of large-scale turbines for generating motive power from steam and waterfalls is long-standing. Though primitive in their designs, they were steps over the extant. The use of axial compression turbines for electricity, following a breakthrough by the British-Swiss giant – ABB set the precedence. Early work going back to almost 15 years before WWII in the US, by Stanford Moss at Cornell University created an organic expertise in axial compression technology.  None, however, was for powering flight.

It is not surprising that the early contractors, the Army and NACA chose for developing Moss’s axial compressor were companies making turbines for electrical power generation. This further partly contributed to prolonging the distracting interlude and reinforcing both the land-use and propeller mindsets. GE was one of these, and got its head start ahead of P&W and Wright Aeronautical, in developing jet engines down the line.  

The deep impact of an innovator is often contingent on the support he gets from the necessary channels. Unfavourable, especially when both corporate and governmental attention and finance, are not as visionary. And when the knowledge of other sources of private capital is limited.

Pavlenko, perhaps not as entrepreneurial as James McDonnell, who a few years later, convinced Laurence Rockefeller and the Army to finance his separate organic but unsuccessful jet engine design. The Army probably smarting from its earlier reticence made the decision this time around.

Nonetheless, Pavlenko went on to make his marks in the aerospace industry, but not with jet engines. His contributions to metallurgy and manufacturing still fundamental to the aerospace industry today. He persisted and created the first practical turboprop engines and built working Airships. His efforts to build a jet engine at Lockheed and Northrop did not benefit from the secretive technology transfer from Britain. By the time of the transfer of Whittle’s design, however, GE was well established in the pivotal axial compression technology.

The Army in its laboratories caried out gamut of research based on both organic and transferred knowledge. This is evident in the series and sequences of versioning getting to the J2Os. These versions, were, however, for the distracting supercharger interlude. GE, thereafter, started in the J30 series working on the transferred Whittle’s design. For all its reticence, the military agency did some work, culminating in the secretive jet engines that powered the Bell Aerospace built experimental AiraCobra.

Subsequent work on jetry after this pioneering experimentation, was by the industry carrying out the gamut, often with expert consultations from universities. P&W eventually caught up with GE leading to the rapid making of the J57 that first powered the B-52. All overseen by Rentschler, who unfortunately not alive to see the transformative J58 produced a year later, for powering the SR 71.

The lack of a technology standard can frustrate the rapid development of a new technology. As knowledge sharing becomes difficult out of various interpretations of the basic tenets of the underlying science. Poor aerodynamics knowledge and the lack of suitable testing equipment also contributory. This also happened with the parallel developments in Britain.

The imminence of an existential war helped in giving the UK a temporary lead over the US. British intelligence had insights into parallel German developments led by two companies. Separated by two large oceans of the world, the US saw no need beyond using propeller-driven bombers for carrying heavy ordinances. Speed was not part of the prevailing military doctrine, and early jet engines had similar if not less weight-carrying capacity of propeller engines.

Institutional scepticism was prevalent in the three leading countries. It takes entrepreneurs to break out from the status quo. In Britain, it was Frank Whittle. The ensuing activities and negotiations ensure that the better performing axial compression standard finally prevail over Whittle’s less performing centrifugal one. Such was not in the US, where the accumulated knowledge of the axial design preceded the transfer of Whittle’s design.

The transformative effects of a radical technology hinges on a successful transition. And transiting depends on perfecting a keystone component during the interlude. The development of the compressor aspect of a jet engine was. This with its impeller at the front of an engine pushes on rushing air into the combustor at a high pressure suitable for creating a jet stream.

And the time it took in miniaturising and making it lighter enough for flight, partly contributing to the delay pre- and immediate post-WWII. Whittle’s ‘lonesome’ toiling was perfecting his centrifugal compressor. The challenge was getting the right configuration, number, size, and thickness of blades for a ‘suitable’ compressor.

Foregrounding the age-long discussions about the sequence of an innovation process. Does technology precede science. Or vice versa? The craftsmanship of both Vladimir Pavlenko and Whittle favours technology development without a full understanding of the underlying science.

It did not help that the science of aerodynamics and jetry was immature pre-WWII. Inexact mathematical models and imperfect theories in the absence of suitable testing equipment, created errors in early technology designs. And delayed the physical manifestation of the superiority of axial over the centrifugal design. And that of jet engines over extant reciprocating propeller-driven ones.

Thus, the ensuing dynamics of the process pitted the engineering mindsets of the entrepreneurs against that of scientists. Engineers favour expansive doing. The military and scientists, however, prefer exactness. This contest between craftsmanship and comprehension shaping at the dawn of jet age. More prominent in the UK than in the US. The division of research actions & activities more prominent in the former, though.

The development of axial compression technology started about the same time in UK as it was in the US. The former with more scientific knowledge and testing capacity for perfecting the technology. Basic and applied research at the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE)[5] at Farnborough ran in parallel to Whittle’s all-research work. After having his idea ridiculed by the Royal Air Force rednecks, Whittle formed a company – Power Jets, which started perfecting his keystone technology. By the time of WWII, his rejected technology became acceptable.

The British government gave his blueprint to companies such as De Havilland, Metropolitan Vickers (MV), Rolls Royce, and British Thomson Houston (BTH), and to RAE for speeding up development. Dr A.A. Griffith, the leader at RAE was initially sceptical of a gas turbine powering flight, and hence reticent in pushing the work further. It did not help that there was a clash of professional ego with Whittle.  Thus, further work took place at these companies.

Further developmental, but not commercial research took place at these companies. De Havilland created early low-performing centrifugal engines that powered the first British fighter jets and civilian jetliners. The actions at both MV and BTH were largely experimental, building on Power Jets’ applied research. Coming with land-based power generation mindset, both soon relinquish their early lead of a transformative technology. BTH transferred its works to Rover, a carmaker.

Griffith at RAE finally warmed up to jetry, and started applying the organic expertise towards developing flight-capable axial compressors. Such strategic rethink accelerated the shortening of the duration of the transition. Even as parallel actions continued both compressor standards.

The ramping of scientific knowledge by RAE balances craftsmanship with comprehension. Rapidly accumulating knowledge and better high-heat capable materials and upskilling, benefit on both sides of Atlantic. Companies starting to use new knowledge for rapid prototyping and permanents. Evident in the transformation that created the J58, which powered in the supersonic SR 71 in early 1950s.

Changing mindset is key early in and during a technology transition. Even Whittle accepted the superiority of axial compressor over his own creation. Continuing to carry out contract works for the military and private companies. De Havilland licensed its centrifugal technology to Wright Aeronautical. Both struggled with the ensuing technology transition.

Sadly, Wright could not master the transition, hence, partly contributing to its decline as a jet engine pioneer. De Havilland with Metropolitan Vickers’ centrifugal portfolio sold out to Armstrong Siddeley, a key partner of RAE alongside MVs and Roll Royce in perfecting its axial technology.

The low-performing centrifugal design declined soon after. And RAE pioneered maritime and naval jet engine technologies. Working with the Royal Navy to build early jet-powered boats and eventually faster warships using advanced axial gas turbine engines.

The RAE itself gradually becoming irrelevant as the gamut of research moving to the private sector. Dr A.A. Griffith headhunted by Rolls Royce, and thus began its ascent as a jet powerhouse. Inconsiderate governmental interventions partly caused by post-WWII bust and by the poorly informed instigation by Frank Whittle, shaping the subsequent dynamics.

A pioneering entrepreneur can become myopic. Especially when not seeing the downside of a previously successful financial or organisational model. Whittle was enamoured by the success of the wartime public model which accelerated the development of jet engines, resulting in powering supersonic flights in less than a decade. And his solution as an advisor, for rescuing the ailing but still adolescent industry was another governmental intervention.

The ensuing ill-informed nationalisation changed the British aerospace industry forever. Initially, expertise and technologies were concentrated in two companies. Rolls Royce (RR) and the now defunct Bristol Aeroplane Company, gobbling up the struggling others. The former with an organic propeller and turboprop subsidiary, bought up Armstrong Siddeley. RR took others and Power Jets, after Whittle left the company.

The bone of contention was that Whittle’s advice for an integrated R&D-manufacturing structure. For advancing the future of the engine-making sub-industry, which was not implemented. Instead, the government of the day separated basic and applied research from the downstream developmental ones.

Subsequent public research somehow favoured developing gas turbines for power generation. The impact was that independent blue sky thinking from national laboratories that sparked the nascent industry, was separated from industrial research that created the practical technologies.

Today, as universities both private and public ones, are taking over the roles of national and corporate research organisations in creating blue sky thinking, it is important to foster means of repairing such broken linkages. The seed of axial compression was planted in the US at Cornell University. A private college endowed by Ezra Cornell[6] who made his wealth from pioneering telegraphy and technology-based money transfer. He is credited as a co-founder of Western Union.

Frank Whittle was sent by the reticent Royal Air Force to Cambridge University a public university, as a convenient & distracting interlude to perfect his ideas. Even though, the knowledge he acquired did not teach him about the pivotal axial technology, as it was based in inaccurate theories and imperfect models. Nonetheless, the place he started mixing comprehension with his precocious craftmanship.

Didactic is different from practical teaching. The latter comes from experimental work. The research at RAE gave Whittle this – specifically about the superiority of axial compression. A suitable reconciliation strategy needed to stem the tides and trend of lowkeying in developing futuristic propulsive technologies. Foregrounding that researching and making are one integral spectrum within an industrial, a regional or national innovation system.

The validity of advice behind deciding the viability of a transformative technology is key. Such must be spot-on. Oftentimes that is not the case. Nobody is perfect. Academics, entrepreneurs, policymakers all have histories of misjudgements or mistakes. Nonetheless, universities must work to prevent the kind of error, the venerable MIT made with the early jet design.

A transformative innovator desires a legacy. Whittle’s quest for the ill-informed nationalisation was to continue the accelerated innovation dynamics and process. It did not pan out this way. Subsequent governmental interventions gave RR all proven British jetry expertise and innovations. Standing to be corrected, the botched TSR 2 supersonic fighter and the commercially unsuccessful Concorde both by Bristol, were the last major or transformative hits. Until recently, that RR is pushing for its ultrafan design.

Not that the US fared better. Market-driven early consolidation (not bigness) of expertise and innovations created similar and subsequent lowkeying. In both nations, incremental tinkering around 1950s’ technologies were the norm, until quite recently. It is informing that there has not being any organic start-up in jetry or offering alternative designs until now.

The supercharger interlude produced innovations. Jetry, however, emerged, albeit the detours, détente, and distractions. The stretched-out innovation process came by both the efforts of public and private sectors. Each, making contributions according to their areas of expertise. Companies, rightly so, eventually emerging as the key innovators. And entrepreneurs very influential.

Starting up...

Independent doing and thinking key for Startupship. Alas, this was missing at the dawn of the jet age. Surprising that accomplished innovators and entrepreneurs such as Jack Northrop, James McDonnell, Donald Douglas, and even Vladimir Pavlenko did not push hard enough. Such could have created alternative, if not better designs. And even pushing further to higher ones. Strangely, no sign that the latter tried to create a company to pursue his idea.   

The early jet pioneers observed the ramming effects of in-coming air into jet engines. Even, in the early days, the influential Air Force testing facility – ADEC simulated escape velocity speeds with jet engines. The further exploration of such could have produced ramjets and even scramjets. The unheralded John Garrett, Roy Marquardt, and Antonio Ferri were the only discernible ones to pursue this higher route.

The premature death of the enterprising Frederick Rentschler the founder of P&W, precluded pushing the boundary beyond the ‘turboramjet’-like J58, which he started designing. And the ensuing ascendance of the now prevalent rocket-driven quasi-market, partly extinguishing.

The early consolidation of expertise and technologies can account for a reason that jet engines did not create a stock market bubble[7]. Even though, the aerospace industry at the time, had its own cycles of booms-boomlets and busts-bustlets. Nonetheless, contrary to the prevalent economic theory, the transformative technology scales thereafter, despite not doing so as a pure-play technology.

Bundling engines with the planes that airframers make, hides engine makers from the market. Having a unitary design, though hastens innovation, the early standardisation, nonetheless, inadvertently, dampens. And the handful becoming subsidiaries, amplifying the historical precedence of hiddenness. This unintended situation is partly one reason much equity or venture finance was not directed at the early jet engine makers, and not having many entrepreneurs being attracted to the sub-industry.

The situation, alas, persists today. This is not, however, a call for an ill-informed governmental intervention to unbundle engine makers from their parent-companies. Bigness is not the issue. Rather, warranting an examination of the structure of both the industrial and national innovation systems. Looking at barriers and chokepoints working against entrepreneurship and knowledge acquisition. Further exploration comes later.

Suitable corporate strategies and governmental policies ensure that Scramjetry is by superfluous Startupship. A structure, which ensures independent but collaborative making. Ensuring that purposive ideas and imaginations receive the necessary financial, industrial and systems support to succeed. Creating the atmosphere for creativity, compositions, and combinations.

Innovative companies, especially those in aerospace, biotech, digital and pharmaceutical industries, carry out the gamut of research. Such integrated corporate research makes them productive in products, services, and profits. The case for publicly funded basic and applied research is not for supplanting, but augmenting private outputs. National laboratories and research centres often offer breakthrough insights and imaginations, which are transferred to companies for further exploration in subsequent developmental and commercial research actions.

Hypersonic technologies using and expanding the biotech and digital ones (especially 3D), having epochal and long-lasting transformative impacts on individuals, economies, markets, and organisations. Creating commensurate wealth and wellbeing as according investment and usage.

The world is at a verge of a transformative transition. The foundational aerospace industry has the chance to continuing enriching customer experience. And to creating ground-breaking services and technologies for itself and by spillovers into the wider national and global economies.

Entrepreneurs innovate integrally, and often do so by finding linkages amongst old and new knowledge and technologies. Vladimir Pavlenko did so by using the skills he acquired from making axial compressor-electrical generator gas turbines, to envision it working for jet engines. Unheralded, but becoming the first person to make the imaginative leap for jetry. His vision came through, and recent innovations are making Scramjetry getting closer.

Jet to Scram

The impending transition to Scramjetry is aided by advances to jetry. The interluding incremental developments over the last five decades, is snowballing to create radical jet engines capable of low Mach hypersonic speeds. Advances in aero chemo/thermodynamics, cooling, heat exchanger and materials science making such possible. Such growth and that of advances in rocketry making Hypersonia ever closer.

The development of the 6th Next Generation Air Dominance (NGAD) by the military in UK and US driving advances in jet engines. Ones which are capable of all levels of speed from subsonic, supersonic to hypersonic one. The Adaptive Cycle and Combined Cycle engines are having a long incubation period.

With Boeing, Lockheed Martin, BAE Systems, and other drone makers, are being encouraged by the military to push the envelope. Engine makers such as AerojetRocketdyne, GE, Northrop Grumman, P&W, Rolls Royce, are working in producing composites in Turbine- or Rocket-based Combine Cycle (TBCC & RBCC) engines.

In parallel, radical upgrades are being made to turbojet or turbofan engines. The Adaptive Cycle design is one in which the two existing air inlets into the jet engine is augmented by another third stream. A bypass design, which makes a TBCC composite engine capable of hypersonic flight is to augment air streams from the front-facing inlet and from the incumbent turbocharging from the exhaust.

The varying of air streams from the bypass and the inlet at different stages of flight is a balancing act. It requires subtle controller technologies, which advances in computation and digital tools are making possible. All designs leading to now in compressor, combustor, fan, turbines, and turbomachinery, are adding up to make these dynamic adaptations possible. Ensuring that the right varying levels of pressure, temperature, and fuel-air mixtures, are attained as required inside the engines.

The ongoing work by P&W on the F135 engine powering the F35 for NGAD aircrafts, is one taking the Adaptive Cycle design to the next level. This turboramjet-like performance can deliver between Mach 4.5 to 6 hypersonic speed. It requires further dynamic adaptations to the inlets and exhausts of the engine to attain such.

Advances since the time of the J58, which powered the SR71 making such turboramjet-like performance possible. This engine had an incomplete bypass. It is not through and through from the front to the back of the engine. It only feeds extra air inside the combustor. An Adaptive Cycle engine, however, has a complete throughput – harnessing the ‘ramming’ effect of the fast-moving aircraft. Thus, creating extra high pressure albeit, less hot air close to the exhaust, hence, more jet stream for thrust.

The additional thrust output is not necessarily much. The ongoing adaptation to the F135, for instance, is adding only 5000 Newton of thrust to the baseline 40000. It, however, makes the difference between low and high supersonic speeds. The key is having sustained thrust at high altitudes, using the thinness of air for pushing faster. Other engines include additional innovations to push the speed further.

The Scimitar hypersonic jet engine design is one. Created by Reaction Engines alongside the SABRE engine, it seems not a priority as the latter is receiving much attention in the news. It is an equally innovative Adaptive Cycle engine that uses the breakthrough helium heat exchanger to cool down on rushing air into the inlet. Helium as other possible inert gases are non-reactive and have inherent low temperature. Thus, making them suitable candidates for absorbing heat from on rushing air, as they are not combustible.

To work perfectly, a heat exchanger is combined with the combustor and turbomachinery in a complex working sub-system. Combustion in a jet engine works better with pressurised air mixing with hydrogen or hydrocarbon in the combustor. Cooled air protects the compressor and the turbine driving it, making it productive enough in generating high pressure air being pushed into the combustor for heating up.

The heat absorbed by the helium is carried around in an intricate pathway. Transferring the heat to the fuel in a complex piping system with a turbopump, using conduction by metals in proximity. This works in a design where the fuel is not the heat carrier right from the exchanger. Where the fuel is, the heated-up fuel itself becomes the carrier mixing with the now highly pressurised and heated up air in the combustor. This happens in the ScramLACE design.

The visionary, but unheralded Vladimir Pavlenko had a poorly received idea, of using contra-rotating turbines for boosting the performance and productivity of jet engines. Long unappreciated, the Scimitar is sporting such innovation in boosting the adaptive design.

The long-running and seemingly relegated Scimitar design promises Mach 5 flight with such adaptations. Such innovation when combined with the ongoing work by Royce Rolls with its ultrafan technology, gives an opportunity for a British design for pushing jetry into even higher low hypersonic speeds. There is a possibility that ongoing work with SABRE is using the Scimitar in making a composite as an airbreathing turborocket. One, which is capable of powering as a single unit for both stratospheric and space flights.

The DASS engine in Canada has all the elemental fluidic and mechanical adaptations. And includes using nanotechnology to augment. This is an Adaptive Cycle engine still not reaching the minimum Mach 5 speed, but on-going developments can and even go beyond. It shares some much similarity with Reaction Engine’s Scimitar, coming as a clone.

Except that the heat exchanger is using boron nanoparticles to increase the surface area that gets in contact with on-rushing air. The engine uses multiple fuel sources i.e., hydrogen hydrocarbon (jet fuel) and a synthetic boron nanoparticle-fuel. These are used in various stages of flight. Starting with jet fuel mixing with pre-cooled air for the inlet and bypass for ascent in the combustor.

Hydrogen is used for higher supersonic flight. At this stage, the only the non-cooled air from the bypass is used, and the bypass is through and through. Performing as a ‘turboramjet. The boron particles are embedded into the walls of the combustor, thus increasing the surface area for more productive chemical reaction between the pre-cooled and non-cooled air and the fuels.

For getting to low hypersonic speed, the ongoing development, is building two ramjet extensions. The DASS plus using either hydrogen or hydrocarbon as fuel. Still not working as a ‘true’ turboramjet, but a sort of an adaptive TBCC, the bypass is now complete and the inlet into the compressor, now completely closed.

The expected maximum speed is not stated, but such can give up to Mach 6. Still below the performance of a true turboramjet. And far below that of a turboscramjet. The one, in which its frontal inlet remains open, as the compressor and/or fan folds away creating a patent opening from the front to the back.

All the ongoing developments are awaiting the granting of pending patents. As wind-tunnel tests still yielding about Mach 5 speed. When granted and proven in real-time flights, the DASS can power earthbound aeroplane-like low hypersonic flight. Going into space as spaceplane requires further development.

There is a pending patent for a hypersonic spaceplane and a high hypersonic engine. The latter integrates a big primary rocket to the DASS engine. After, a possible Mach 6 ascent to the stratosphere, the rocket uses on-board stored liquid oxygen (LOX) for pushing the plane further into the low in-space orbit. Where it dispatches its payload, returning to earth as a single unit. Landing on a normal tarmac.

The high hypersonic engine is a TBCC not a RBCC like a SABRE. And it is not a ‘true’ TBCC. The rocket shares only fuel pipping with the DASS plus engine, not acting as an ejector. And not airbreathing as they are constituent engines not firing as a unit. Such bring much complexity, even without accounting for integrating two different fuel tanks. Nonetheless, the main innovations of using nano-boron heat exchanger and fuel, give both the basic DASS and DASS plus the potentials of low hypersonic speeds.

The advances with Hermeus turboramjet, DASS engines (excluding the rocket bit), and Scimitar, points to a radical rebirth of jetry. So also, are the oncoming developments at P&W and AerojetRocketdyne. The latter ownership by Raytheon promises integration with the ongoing development of scramjets at Northrop Grumman.

Scramjetry offers the best integrated and most productive engine solution for both stratospheric and space flights. Either using same or separate aeroplanes. The DASS spaceplane design, however, has so much weight that its payload capacity is low and fuel consumption high. SABRE does better as a turborocket using pre-cooled air for both the airbreathing constituent turbofan/jet and the liquid fuelled rocket using on-board compressed air. There are, however, other possibilities.

Breathing better

The quest for a highly productive low-cost and routinely used vehicle for spaceflight is ramping up. And solutions are nigh. SABRE, like the airbreathing Fenris-rocket using in-flight processed liquefied air, are capable for both earthly and near galactic hypersonic flight. Such discussed in the last essay of the series. A company such as GE considering the proposed turbo-RDE-Scramjet single composite unit, also adds to the mix.  And considering using the power of an airbreathing ScramLACE, even adds to the list.

The Liquid Air Cycle Engine (LACE) technology works as a borderline between a TBCC and a RBCC. Another aspect of jetry that has received little attention over the years. Precluding creating classes such as cryojets and hyperjets.  A study insights prior work carried out by Marquardt Corporation and Garrett Ai on behalf of the US Air Force and NASA for such class of propulsive technologies. The advantage of minimal turbomachinery and the doing away with a bulky compressor unit, save weight, and make possible extremely high Mach speed with a scramjet.

In its simplistic form – a Basic LACE is a turbojet, but including a heat exchanger-condenser unit getting atmospheric air from narrow inlets. Liquefying the air with a circulating liquid hydrogen being used both as a coolant and fuel. A lightweight design, no need for a separate big storage tank, as the hydrogen is inherent within the heat exchanger-turbomachinery unit. The liquid air (LIAR) like Fenris’s. Being pumped out the condenser into the piping system mixing with hydrogen before being pumped into the combustor for generating thrust at the rear end.

The Basic LACE was proven as capable of 0-8 Mach speed. Initial power for take-off working like a normal turbojet. The main advantage of such an engine is making use of cold air and fuel maximising the use of basal specific latency in the combustor. Captured heat pumped into the combustor as well. Offering another solution as with the RamLACE-variant, for aeroplane-like all airport-capable earthbound hypersonic flights.

The variant even more thrusty. The design of a LACE engine offers partial front-back throughput. Requiring just making the combustor wider to becoming a ramjet, but using liquid air and hydrogen as fuel. As a split air jet, one which only a proportion of the on-rushing air is liquefied.

The other pre-cooled non-liquid air ‘rammed’ into the chamber for high combustion. With an afterburner in the combustor, more thrust is gained. Such gives up to Mach 10-14 using supersonic combustion. Lower Mach speed using the subsonic one. The ultimate is the scramjet-variant.

The ScramLACE is capable as an airbreathing engine powering a single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) spaceplane. Two additional designs, afford. The inlets are on the sides of the front of the turbo-heat exchanger-condenser unit. Primary airbreathing rockets are in-built just after the unit opening into the rear-end scramjet.

Combining with the functions and performance of a RamLACE, the rockets further helps in compressing the on-rushing non-liquified pre-cooled air as additional jet streams into the combustor. They also act for high powered take-off power units, augmenting the Basic LACE unit of the engine. Without the need for a bypass design.

A well designed ScramLACE is capable of up to Mach 20+. Enough for overcoming the escape velocity needed for spaceflight. The primary airbreathing rocketlets (number as required and depending on the size of the combustor), also act as thrusters for pushing further into space. The possible advantage over Fenris and SABRE is that it uses both condensed and pre-cooled liquid & compressor non-liquid air. Giving more thrust and speed without the need of firing up large traditional air-polluting rockets, and with less fuel consumption.

It is also lighter. Without a compressor, the minimal turbomachinery benefits from condensed liquid air and hydrogen. Reducing the need for a big power-hungry one – saving weight. The ramming of non-liquid air further saves and prevents such. The added advantage of having the turbo sub-unit outside the main exchanger-scramjet unit permits front-to-back jet streaming. Even the DASS plus + rocket does not benefit from the basic DASS engine acting as an ejector in its terminal spaceflight. It is an add-on, not an inbuilt design as in a composite engine.

The ScramLACE with its inherent afterburners, supportive airbreathing rockets and scramjet combustion, as a unit firing in unison into space. If the suitable weighting permits, a fan, or a supercharger can be added for more thrusty jet-streaming. This addition must be balanced with the need for a tank.

Cryogenic combustion favours slush hydrogen. One which is supercooled as a mixture of ice flakes and liquid. It is possible for other fuel-types to be used, but requiring suitable refrigeration. Extra-weight-bearing capacity permitting, though. Refrigeration is inherent in liquid hydrogen. Thus, the tank is well insulated to sustain during the flight. The heat differentials from the heat exchanger help in maintaining suitable temperature.

Gasified hydrogen in the exchanger pumped back into the tank supercooled before being pumped into the combustor. A smaller tank may be required for storing liquid air in-flight. An addition, which makes possible combustion with the air-augmented rocketlets for in-space manoeuvrability and thrusting.

A ScramLACE spaceplane design[8] by Japanese Space Agency promises vastly superior cost-effectiveness and aircraft-like reusability and durability. Over traditional extant and emerging rocket systems being used for spaceflight. Even though, this design is not a pure ScramLACE. As its terminal flight into space requires an integrated big rocket burning on-board liquid oxygen. An added weight grossly consuming more fuel from take-off. Something which the original design under the Aerospaceplane programme, excludes.

Jetry transitioning into Scramjetry. The technologies receiving radical makeovers compositing for better revolutionary designs. Hypersonia is closer than ever. The original ScramLACE conceived under the defunct NASA-sponsored Aerospaceplane programme, will benefit from modern advances in jetry and rocketry. The components and contents from building such an engine and plane, far better than when the programme was conceived.

The advances in liquid-fuel rockets and adaptive and combine cycle jet engines are encouraging. Increasing the possibility of building better performing and faster composite scramjet engines. The LACE class of jet rocket-like engines have other possibilities.

A SuperLACE design like a RamLACE is even a lighter turbojet capable of hypersonic flight, making use of thermal energy gradient from the two-way conversion of cooled para and ortho liquid and gaseous hydrogen types. Such racemic reactions, affording another mechano-chemical combustion design.

The Air Enhanced Combustion Engine (ACES) variant, uses condensed supercooled air and hydrogen, enhancing & mixing with chemicals. The idea of using self-igniting chemicals such as the gel by NewRocket, ever possible. Making designing a chemo-mechanical turbo-RDE-Scramjet ever possible.

A new issue with LACE engines is removing the impurities in the absorbed air. Carbon Dioxide and Argon are not useful propellants. Hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, more abundant in natural air are, and their elemental and molecular combinations in the crucibles, enhance combustion. A possibility for separating and storing airborne helium for later use as ion thrusters in-space, also affords. Using argon for such, as elements in the same class, warrants further examination.

Innovation is about pushing the boundary of what is possible. Changing and overcoming ossifying mindsets. Enabling transformations. The renewed fervour in making airbreathing propulsion systems for both earthbound and near-galactic flights must be sustained. The convergence of industries and technologies bringing new compositions and combinations.

Every technology transition amplifies the performance and visibility of the emergent. And often relegates that of the extant. Solid-fuelled rockets can struggle to remain relevant. These chemicals carry inherent oxidative and fuel materials for integral combustion. Nonetheless, niche roles in lobbing beyond low & medium space orbits and boosting hypersonic boost-glide warheads can sustain. Watch out!

The US Navy recently used a solid fuelled ramjet for boosting a hypersonic warhead-vehicle. The Army using it for long-range hypersonic artillery, with a possibility of changing the conduct & doctrine of terrestrial warfare. Such can even accelerate or sustain the irrelevance of solid rockets. Especially, when such scramjet-variants can be made. Regardless, the costly expendability of such boosters, further reinforces the imperative for airbreathing vehicles for boosting hypersonic projectiles or weapons.

It is going to be difficult, but not impossible, for the military during a war to be recovering such boosters for instant reuse. Expendability is costly. So also, is the time-wasted in waiting for recoverable boosters to be rehabilitated or refurbished for an instant reuse. Such wastes, manpower, better directed at other essential needs. Having loads of such booster can negate, but many on board a bomber, ship or submarine is extra unwanted weight and space-consuming.

The imperative for an aeroplane-like reusable, routine all-weather airbreathing hypersonic vehicles, even stronger. For a low-intensity war, such expendable boosters are justified. As the number lost is low. Developing recoverable boosters to fly back using deployable and retractable wings with residual fuel, or landing by parachutes in order.  

However, for a high intensity large-scale war, the amount required will be high. And hence, costly in financial and human terms. Justifying developing hyper speed recoverable vehicles as boosters. The different airbreathing engines are suitable candidates for powering. And with the right innovations, a pure play turboscramjet is possible for such, earthbound flights, and even reaching the simulated Mach 25 speed for heavy lifting spaceflight.

Inventing a “suctoscramjet” engine design is possible. One which uses in-built turbogenerators or harnessing the hydraulics from the liquid turbomachinery for powering a suction. Sucking in air into the scramjet from the start, enabling hyper speed take-off. Compositing a Fenris or a NewRocket with a scramjet also comes into mind.

Most human problems are solved by innovations. Before flying was invented, most arduous and long-ranging travels over landmasses and oceans made by either motorcar, evens by horses or ships. The latter in particular, the vehicle of globalisation was initially powered by sail, then by turbines powered by coal, and later diesel, natural gas, or petrol. The fuels and technologies underpinning the transitions coming by innovations. Thus, the emerging engines and green innovations are a continuance of long-running quests for doing better and creating more. 

Aircrafts have since, becoming a major driver or vehicle of globalisation. The visible and still invincible innovations are to breakthrough from the ossifying peak performance. The possibilities are enormous for living, placial and economic transformations.

Most human problems are solved by innovations. Before flying was invented, most arduous and long-ranging travels over landmasses and oceans made by either motorcar, evens by horses or ships. The latter in particular, the vehicle of globalisation was initially powered by sail, then by turbines powered by coal, and later diesel, natural gas, or petrol. The fuels and technologies underpinning the transitions coming by innovations. Thus, the emerging engines and green innovations are a continuance of long-running quests for doing better and creating more. 

Aircrafts have since, becoming a major driver or vehicle of globalisation. The visible and still invincible innovations are to breakthrough from the ossifying peak performance. Using multiple engines permissible, if early designs are not thrusty enough for powering hyper speed and long-range flights. The B-52 comes into mind. The octa P800 engines, are working in combinations. Using digital controllers for distributing, moderating, and varying thrusts from the eight engines, working as an integral unit.

The old Scramjetry StarRaker and StarRunner designs were for the low-performing engines of the time. Thus, the use of many individual engines. Advances in making composite hypersonic engines, negate such today.

The possibilities are enormous for living, placial and economic transformations.

Places

The atmosphere where innovations take place matter. Entrepreneurs and innovators prefer such that is conducive and receptive of their ideas. And the capacity for securing the suitable resources needed for making the ideas reality. Extant productive places are growing, and new ones emerging. The old forgotten ones, attempting to make a comeback.

Placemaking, placecreating and placeforming are strategies for developing the right atmosphere.  For incubating and birthing innovations. Productive places enable combinatorial and multiple innovations. The one that keeps expanding and growing in its capacities, capabilities and fruits succeeding even more. Such eschews early consolidation of actions and activities.

Scramjetry requires such constant florescence. Different path creations conforming to the original purpose required. Preventing the early demise of young innovative companies, such as it happened to Marquardt Corporation, Garrett Ai, Reaction Motors, and others. Converging and constituent companies in places must keep pushing the boundary.

Grumman came back from a transient decline to emerging as a partner to Northrop. Partly creating Scramjetry. However, the recovery and renewal as Northrop Grumman (NG), not being enough to restore Long Island, New York to its past glory. The place scored certain firsts in Aviation. The Spirit of St Louis, the plane used by Charles Lindberg for making the epochal transatlantic flight from there. Grumman built the first moon lander there, and with its counterpart – Republic, made early pioneering supersonic jets.

Ever working to restore such glory. Long Island leaders (policymakers and politicians) working with the private sector, are trying[9]. They are, however, realising that regeneration is more difficult than originalism. Especially, other national and global hubs are desiring the same flourishing.

The policy interventions are making considerable impacts. Led by the civic government using supportive state and federal laws and resources. Centred around using extent illustrious public institutions for sparking biotech, cleantech, digital, nuclear, and robotic innovations. Using Nobel or award-winning laboratories, research centres, and universities as platforms for rebirth. Even, the renowned Wall Street investor – Jim Simons, being used as an Ambassador.

The private sector being led by entrepreneurs and investors contributing. By direct Startupship. And by creating accelerators and meetup facilities for incubating and nurturing ideas. Old real estate i.e., buildings and factories being refurbished towards these ends. Having the global financial hub at nearby New York city, facilitatory and helpful in the effort.

NG has factories at Long Island and there are handful of aerospace companies offering maintenance services. Nonetheless, aerospace is no longer considered as a policy priority. No doubt, the seeded resources, and talents from its transient decline, helpful in these emerging sparks.

In general, rehubbing is coming as tough to achieve. Finding that the past glory days, of civic economic activities revolving around two companies, not reproducible. Not that such is impossible, rather, the new economy involving SMEs of different sizes. Of course, there is no indication that the productivity of the new is comparable to the old. Nonetheless, new jobs and emerging innovations are being created.

Hotspots of different but specific technology-focussed companies, rather than a big hub are emerging. And the efforts of the civic government are now being directed at amplifying their impacts and integrations. The focus is now building an atmosphere that is encouraging for creating and sharing knowledge and promoting linkages amongst the discrete hotspots.

Even as high geographical spread and low population density constraining. The natural and secular agglomerating with nearby Manhattan and more productive hubs in the states of Boston, New York and New Jersey, a potential for ameliorating.

The R&D-led placial policy enabling a conducive innovation structure. The challenge is balancing making with maintaining. Old infrastructure requires heavy financial and human investments, even as new ones are required for supporting agglomeration and stickiness. Navigating and negotiating extant complex financial, political and policy systems key for creating the emergent.

The focus tilts heavily towards the new industries. Even as some of the leading companies are in the aerospace sector and mechanical industry. Fostering integration with these companies by the new ones, is strategic. The linkage between R&D and manufacturing still essential today, as Frank Whittle envisioned decades ago.

The main co-founder of Grumman, the eponymous Leroy, created the company after leaving the Navy. Using the skills acquired from overseeing plane-building programmes for starting up, after making key patented inventions himself. His company growing, leading to the WWII, making planes contributing to victory. Working as an independent within a government-led wartime economy. The acquired craftsmanship visible to becoming a main contractor in the Moonshot.

The success coming by integrating corporate research with metallurgy and manufacturing for creating such and other ground-breaking planes. Such linkage essential and strategic not only within a company, but also in cities, regions, and countries. Opportunities abound in employing DigiMech for creating better and high performing engines, drones, flying cars, and software innovations for more intuitive and secure controllers and telemetric systems.

Innovations start in different individual minds and happen in different places. Linking independent doing & making together key for scaling up. And protecting intellectual property with patents or trademarks, as Grumman who was sent to MIT by the Navy to study aeronautical engineering did. As well as Whittle did, is part of enriching hubs or hotspots.

Productive places afford & ensure the teambuilding required for corporate and collaborative making and servicing. Transferring independent creativity into better civic, national, and global economies. Vladimir Pavlenko did not get the right atmosphere for incubating his idea of making a pioneering jet engine.

Whittle had, but lacking independence lost his appetite for further innovation, leaving his company to be nationalised. Leroy Grumman did not encounter such. Even leaving the military, he and his company were not subjected to public-driven diktat. And all still having their patents, even today, contributing to further innovations.

Entrepreneurs play key roles in bringing about places. The singular act of Theodore von Karman co-founding the Jet Propulsion Laboratory with the real Frank Molina[10], and co-founding Aerojet with his students, transformative. Placecreating Los Angeles and the Southern California region as a rocketry hub. Big companies are working alongside SMEs, all creating together.

The discussion about hubbing is beyond the size of the constituent companies. The big and small can co-exist. The focus is more on the innovation structure ensuring the full growth and productivity of the firms and the flourishing of their talents. A few big firms can form the centre of a hub, so also is a high number of SMEs.

A medley of hotspots of a motley crew of start-ups, is forced on Long Island, because of geographical sparseness. It is not the desired choice, as the civic or local leaders still searching for more that is commensurate with the glory days. What is lacking is a nucleating technology. Making hypersonics helpful in concentrating the different hotspots and emerging technologies.

Farnborough today emerges as the centre of a still growing aerospace hub in South West England. The entrepreneurial actions and activities of Dr A.A. Griffith at the Royal Aircraft Establishment with jetry, instrumental. Starting from Surrey down to Hampshire and Wiltshire, this sprawling hub, consists of big companies & SMEs working together.

The emerging hypersonic hubs in California, Florida, Texas, and Alberta in Canada, have these different possible placial configurations. That in Abingdon, Oxfordshire is, however, being led by the still SME, Reaction Engines. Alberta is an oil-rich region of Canada, plotting a green future. Still not forgoing its hydrocarbon industry, but creating the structure for cleantech innovations.

The location of the aspiring Space Engines System – the maker of the DASS hypersonic engines, creating a possible placeforming for Hypersonia. Creating from the scratch a budding aerospace hublet in a region not widely known for such. There is an indication of sprouting linkages with local companies. And as Reaction Engines, is doing, exploring using its transferable technologies in other industries and sectors. Both linking R&D and manufacturing in-house and within the region.  

DASS has a signed an agreement with the operator of the placecreating spaceport at Cornwall for its upcoming hypersonic plane. Such is most likely in place by the aspiring spaceplane maker – Orbital Access at Prestwick in Ayrshire. A placecreating spaceport with local and national public and private funding being instrumental. With the opportunity of scaling up the extant aerospace hublet.

The private funded one by the Danish landowners in Sutherland is complementary. Lockheed Martin recently signed an agreement for developing technologies and using the spaceport for future launches. The future of the aerospace industry benefits from these spaceporting.

Those being created by Virgin Galactic in New Mexico and Space X at Boca Chica in Texas are other examples of private entrepreneurial placeforming. The failed landing of the Starship notwithstanding; the prospect of liquid fuelled rockets being bolstered. Further success coming by pivoting to building airbreathing aeroplane-like spacecrafts. These two regions are noted for nuclear and rocketry, respectively. The former is the home of US’s nuclear weaponry and has some extant rocketry in place.

The highly productive and globally renowned Los Alamos Laboratory is located there. These regions, as the location of the atomic-focussed Brookhaven Laboratory at Long Island, can develop nuclear propulsion systems. A NuLACE, a subsect of ScramLACE possible for using highly controlled and safe on-nuclear reactors for creating heated jet streams.

Even as earthbound hypersonic flights taking off and landing at the usual airports. Orlando, Florida has a flourishing aerospace hub, with Aerion Corporation moving there at nearby Melbourne with its own airport, creating further room for agglomeration.

Linkages between these places using digital platforms, ensure coordination and judicious management of national and global strato-space. Previously on this platform, a proposition is developing the right pro-innovation rules and regulation for birthing Hypersonia. The civil aviation agency in New Zealand, has created such for spacefaring aeroplane-like crafts using normal airports. The US has long same for overland flying space rockets.

Even as the Dutch-Kiwi Dawn Aerospace liquid-fuelled rocketplane is not still hypersonic. The prospects of making it such, and encouraging other entrepreneurs to doing more and better, increases. As the public sector enabling the private one.

Entrepreneurial flourishing leads to different path creations. The low volume and speed of Startupship in Scramjetry, is seen in the low manifestation of the possible 130 compositions. This is not even adding those being possible by developing individual turbojet LACE designs, and their different compositions.

Aspiring entrepreneurs can choose different places. In so far, the extant infrastructure and industry are enabling. The choice by intentional and original purpose. Whether having supportive aeronautics, aerospace, aviation, rocketry and/or jetry expertise, and suitable access to finance.

The ADEC at Camp Forrest, Tennessee is a place. Even, when there is no full-blown aerospace hub in place, as a privately run federal military agency, it is linked with other facilities across the nation. Sharing and spreading expertise across the productive regional and national aerospace innovation system.

Including with Area 51 in Nevada, where most secretive ground-breaking drones and planes are being tested. DARPA, recently, expanding bio-mimetics under the Control of Revolutionary Aircraft with Novel Efforts (CRANE) programme. For developing new plane control technologies, like the ones being used by birds for using natural airstreams for effortless control and cruise. Promising more efficiency and productivity of hypersonic planes.

The mixing of craftsmanship with comprehension is driving growth in the aerospace industry. Even though, both can exclusively exist. Leroy Grumman and his co-founders created his company with his technical skills, with no, consultation with a university, even though he attended Cornell and trained at MIT. The new national hypersonic research centre at Texas A&M university, will end up spinning out, as the University of Queensland in Australia is doing with Hypersonix.

Universities matter as a place for innovating. Space Engines System in Alberta is craftsmanship-led placeforming, even as it is working with University of Calgary for its nanotech. Imperial College contributing to the development of the Scimitar hypersonic engine. Reaction Engines, no doubt benefitting from its nearness to the University of Oxford. Whose vaccine being developed with Astra Zeneca is promising the long-desired herd-immunity.

The imminence of a crisis speeds up innovation. The flurry of biotech inventions proffering solutions for Covid-19 is an example. Breaking through long-standing barriers in harnessing the power of viruses for creating medicines and vaccines. Such flourishing happening with satellite innovations.

Hypersonia enables rapid and reusable access to space for lobbing satellites. With prompt preferred cadence and consistency. Satellites serve many national economic, transportation and security purposes. Recently, the Satellite Application Catapult (SAC) at Harwell, Oxfordshire announces new grants. There are interesting ones, out of the total 21 grants.

The applicants come from industries (start-ups and companies) and research centres including universities. Coming from across the tetra nation. SpaceForge is a young start-up, developing highly manoeuvrable factory-satellites, using them as workshops for in-space manufacturing.

Another interesting winner is by University of Cambridge developing infrared-telescopes for monitoring the earth for carbon emission. One by a Surrey-based consortium using infrared cameras on microsatellites for monitoring heat emission from buildings on earth.

And there is an interesting one – Satellites for Batteries, using AI for analysing geospatial satellite data. For identifying earth crusts with a possibility for lithium deposits. Having a Cornwall-based miner as a consortium partner, and with a possibility for detecting similar metallic deposits.

The strategy of the granting is combining achieving long-term national development goals by and with technological means & ways. Including advancing national security with digital-space convergence. There are applications developing AI and quantum-capable satellites for earth monitoring and communication. One is Craft Prospect, a start-up developing space-borne Quantum Key Device satellites for secure communication.

The development of 5G tele-networks is ramping up across the world. The granting recognises such digital advancement. One application being led by SAC, including OneWeb is developing 5G microsatellites, able to seamlessly integrate with terrestrial ones as a backhauling infrastructure. Another is by Lynk Global UK, an independent subsidiary of the US start-up developing LynkCast nanosatellites for global mobile-like communication, bypassing terrestrial tele-networks.

It is long coming that space-borne heaven-to-hands communication systems will arise to supplement or even supplant earthbound ones. These two are using nanosatellites; others such as AST & Science and Israeli-founded Australia-based Sky & Global using nanosatellites. Even possible that smaller picosatellites such as the ones being developed by Alba Orbital, can work towards similar ends in the coming future.

Not far-fetched, a grant to Northumbria University is exploring using laser for load-shedding data from CubeSats as they have limited storage space. For rapid transferring of data between small and big satellites and earth-based storage.

The Satellite Application Centre at Harwell, a product of public placecreation, is emerging as a hub for space applications. With nuclear and particle physics origins, it is fast emerging as a place for starting up rockets and satellites makers. A crucible suitable for the nearby Reaction Engines, and for creating other hypersonic technologies.

Companies and countries desire secure communication, even as geopolitical contentions are ramping up. The Space Force can end up stewarding the space communication systems for the US military. Having an integrated space-terrestrial tele-network without recourse to sabotage-prone earth-stations, strategic.

Even as possible oversight of or integration with the Space Development Agency is, the Space Force must also consider its relationship other agencies. Satellite-owning and operating intelligence & military organisations are scattered across communication, monitoring and surveillance capabilities. Finding means of working effectively with the highly innovative but secretive National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) is key.

Reporting directing to the President through the highly influential advisory National Security Agency, it has for a long time the creator of spying satellites, alongside the CIA, which also operate its. The various lidar, optical, radar cameras & sensors, these satellites carry are state-of-the-heart. These are spilling over into the general economy, but more can be created. The possibility of a high-tech hublet around its headquarters possible.

The NRO being able to lob satellites at a short notice to space requires reliable technologies and services. An airbreathing aeroplane-like hypersonic vehicle is up to the task. Working together with the Space Force, to facilitate such innovation is imperative. Giving both prompt and integrated intelligence capabilities for both defence and offense.

The productivity of agencies and companies are fundamental to the health of an innovation system. The structure of which enabling, encourages pivoting. The UK has a history of automobile engine-making. These are located at F1 hubs such as in Surrey and Silverstone in Midlands. Making engines for hi-tech sport cars. There are other companies such as Cosworth and Ricardo, long-standing automobile engines pioneers, and maritime gas jet-turbine maker such as Bladon Micro Turbine. Pivoting to making hypersonic engines, not only helping in expanding their expertise & portfolio, also contributing to building the future.

Detroit in Michigan is an example of a unitary technology-focussed hub. Aside from the influential Motown Music industry, its decline is partly by this narrow focus. Losing exports to Asian countries, also contributory, but allowing California to dictating the EV revolution, influential. Even losing talents and investment to the southernly state in the emerging industry. Even Motown is ceding its R&B crown to California. Pivoting to making for Hypersonia ameliorates.

Future-making is key for regeneration. Car makers in Detroit used to experiment with jet- or rocket-driven cars. Such adventurism can be harnessed for making airbreathing hypersonic engines. Even combining their digital automobile design skills with extant mechanical craftsmanship for making accompanying airframes.

The combination of ideas creates innovations. An innovation of using smaller pistons in an internal combustion engine such as the one by the Israeli start-up Aquarius Engines, comes as inspirational. Generating motive power with electromagnetism promises greener, smaller, and equally productive engines. The possibilities are many.

Propulsion for hypersonic planes can embrace such ingenuity as well. A ScramLACE, for instance, becoming an ion thruster in-space, using the liquid fuel and air produced in-flight for creating electromagnetic pulses. Such can also be used for generating constant detonation in an RDE-scramjet engine. Or a lightweight turbomachinery for priming turbojet-LACE engines, and for replacing rocketlets in the design for terminal ascent into space.

An Aquarius engine in-built with a Suctoscramjet, gives turbomachinery power for rapid intaking of air capable of hyper speed take-off. In lieu of a battery-powered one, even it is possible for the engine to be in-built with light weight on-board batteries working together for powering light aircrafts, as Norman Britten is making. A more practical fuel-cell system for flight possible by in-building with such engine.

The possibilities are enormous. And companies are essential. Their inputs and influences key in starting and sustaining hubs. By seeding finance, talents, and technologies. The inability to do so effectively, hampering to the local or regional economic & innovation structure. Embraer is a big company in Sao Paulo, Brazil. The city, however, does not have the same aerospace hubbing comparable to Bombardier at Montreal, Canada. Comparison to Los Angeles or South West England, is stretching it.

This is due to being an advanced assembler of components and parts, coming from various parts of the world. Whilst it plugs the company and the city to the global trading network, it is not seeding enough finance and talents to the innovation system. Most R&D i.e., aeronautics and designs, are being carried out outside the city and country, internationally, and not being linked with the domestic manufacturing.

Embraer comes as an oasis in a vast desert surrounded by a motley crew of cacti. These mostly providing low tech supporting services. Not producing high tech products and services. Most of the valuable avionics and engine systems, imported. Global trading is relevant, but the executives of the company can do more to encourage local or regional hubbing. Both the civic and national governments can be supportive in this regard. As such placemaking strategic for upgrading its national innovation system.

Even a company struggling in a subsect of an industry, can find succour in another. Boeing is having a pandemic-induced crisis with its civilian fleet business. It is, however, making progress elsewhere. Its Starliner space capsule, getting a rebirth after passing the NASA-overseen tests of its parachutes.

The Moonshot reload is by its design. The gigantic Space Launch System for lobbing astronauts into space. This is even as NASA is hedging by having a private consortium of Space X, Blue Orion and Dynetics as an alternative of going to the moon. Boeing is also scoring with its autonomous business.

The Skyborg programme by the US Air Force is for birthing autonomous drones acting as a sidekick to manually piloted jet fighters. Boeing recently got awarded a grant for its Loyal Wingman drone, alongside ones by Krastos and General Atomics. This is a large-scale programme involving the development of AI-laden software infrastructure for both autonomous and manual control and communication. Its MQ 25 aerial refuelling drone getting ready for operations.

AeroVironment, a leading drone-maker contributing, this is even as the US Navy is proving its switchblade-like drones as submarine-launched airborne sentinels. Augmenting the function of the usual periscopes being used for spotting targets, reducing the risks of detection by surfacing for using such extant.

Advances in jetry and rocketry contributing to achieving Scramjetry. That Boeing is at the crosshair of EU-UK-US hemispheric trade convergence is informative of how geopolitical high-tech business & making is. The emergence of Hypersonia is bringing nations together in potential conflicts, and in cooperation.  

Joust & Join

The global race to develop practical hypersonic technologies and tools is ramping up. The military sphere receiving more attention than the civilian one. The rising battle to developing such, running alongside that of jousting to controlling the global cyberspace and marketplace. Foregrounding how essential and strategic is for nations to have integrated domestic R&D-manufacturing capabilities.

The US, China and Russia are identified as leading in the race to develop hypersonic weapons. Britain has such upcoming developments, as well. In the US, the Army, Airforce, Navy & Marine are demonstrating such capabilities in various experimentations and tests. The Army, for instance, is about receiving a fully operational truck-mounted airbreathing hypersonic long-range missiles from Lockheed Martin. The company creating with its expertise acquired from co-developing the X-51 with Boeing.

This is even as DARPA is pursuing hypersonic glide breakers for intercepting in-bound hypersonic missiles. For both homeland and on-field defence, augmenting other emerging capabilities. Using an airbreathing hypersonic plane for projecting hypervelocity projectiles for stratospheric intercept can be considered. The consideration by the Space Force for a privately run collection of spaceports, can consider creating similarly managed “stratoports” to this end.

The hypersonic plane together with existing air platforms can have on-board Aquarius-like engine for generating and projecting offensive electromagnetic pulses. Using it for powering laser guns or even for generating such, is also explorable. The performance of the planes enhanced by making use of the Army-led research of developing in-flight ‘transforming’ rotor blades, for boosting the speed and efficiency of helicopters. Such can be used for improving that of turbine-driven impeller-blades in jet engines and wind turbines.  

The recent international treaty between the US and Australian militaries, building on an ongoing pact, advancing Hypersonia. The agreement is exploring together the use of mutual hypersonic technologies for national security, and for joint commercial development. Such developments are for augmenting America’s interests in the increasingly contentious pacific hemisphere.

China has since 2018, claiming to be developing hypersonic weapons. A hypersonic drone was touted, and there is a claim of an airbreathing scramjet-powered long-range hypersonic missile reaching operational maturity very soon. Even as it uses the DF-17 for bolstering its anti-area/access denial (AA/AD) doctrine.

The on-going development of the sodaramjet is another effort. Geopolitics is ramping these developments, even as it is exceedingly difficult to have publicly available information for verifying the claims. Nonetheless, Hypersonia is going global. The recent arrest of a scion of a venerable aerospace dynasty in Russia, on the ground of treasonable sharing of secret hypersonic designs, underlines the fervour of the global race. 

Russia has demonstrated hypersonic air- and sea-launched hypersonic missiles. It is, however, difficult to see if these are airbreathers or not. And even knowing the type of rocket technology powering them. Nonetheless, the rumour is that an airbreathing rocket technology is contributing to furthering Scramjetry. Even encouraging its domestic jet engine maker to this end, possible.

The geopolitical efforts are narrowly focussing on military technologies. Similar focal and urgent considerations must be given to developing civilian use-cases. Developing airbreathing hypersonic engines for powering regular earthbound flights.

Aerion Corporation, Hermeus and Reaction Engines are working are. And the Alberta-based Space Engines System is also considering such with its still developing and yet to be patented hypersonic engines and plane. Foreground a dosage of geopolitics. That the German-led European Stratofly programme is partnering with a Canadian start-up using a British design, smacks of unstrategic desperation.

It is showing that the EU is not capable of developing a capable hypersonic engine in-situ, even though, such is contributing to driving rising international trade of the technologies. It is, nonetheless, a geopolitical fear of missing out on an emerging technology, showcasing an institutional resistance to breakthrough innovation.

Perplexing, that the Delft, Netherlands – designed liquid-fuelled rocket is being made in New Zealand. And even when Germany has a jet engine maker – MTU Aero and France has CFM/Safran. And Even though, both are marginal players in the global jet engine market, being led by the trio – GE, Pratt & Whitney, and Rolls Royce.

Not even considering that the Augsburg based RFA rocket-maker in Germany, is promising an airbreathing liquid-fuelled rocket engine design. And the Aurora liquid-fuelled rocketplane programme, has not gone beyond testing a demonstrator with subsonic jet engines. Even France has Dassault[11] and Sweden has the Saab Aerospace company. And the German-led Airbus designing hypersonic and hydrogen-fuelled aircrafts.

The rising international trade and geopolitics of hypersonics, dovetail with other spheres. Russia is getting wary of China using its transferred jet engines for building a counter-domestic industry. This is even as Japan is working with American companies for developing next generation fighters and hypersonic weapons for AA/AD in the South China Sea. China jousting with the US and European Space Agency as leaders in spacefaring.

The geopolitics of innovation is creating possibilities for space-based materials exploration. Being minerals-poor, the Hayabusa 2 spacecraft technology is being tested by Japan to this end. A few years ago, when threatened by China to use its rare-earth metals stockpile as a geopolitical weapon, Japan deciding to take actions. Fearing for its reliant domestic industry, Japan explored the ocean-bed. Discovering a trove of deposits in the process.

Not putting its eggs in one basket, and the still difficult ocean-bed mining process, Japan developing technologies for identifying an alternative – mining asteroids with the desired deposits. Both the UK and US with their private companies leading, are also exploring similar possibilities. Even as more efforts are being directed at finding new, or reopening, old mines in these countries and elsewhere.  Moreover, these and others with historical expertise in submarine and ocean-floor exploration technologies and services, standing to leading in the rising submaritime mining industry.

The quest for national innovation leadership or stewardship extends to the cyberspace. Digital technologies such as the 5G, AI, blockchain, cloud, internet, quantum, are key to making, protecting, and using hypersonic technologies. Not only in the military sphere, but also in the commercial market.

Corporate research developing digital technologies require the gamut. Though, not as manpower-intensive or time-taking as the for traditional manufacturing, companies carry out basic, applied, developmental and commercial research in-house. Regardless, these research actions and activities, require cybersecurity. Industrial espionage is rising, and having most doing and making online, exacerbating the vulnerability.

A 5G factory using 3D printing and computer assisted design for making a hypersonic engine, for instance, doing everything online. Individual or corporate carelessness or malicious attacks can siphon off these valuable intellectual properties at once. Thus, the need for innovating and using the emerging digital technologies for safeguarding personal, corporate, regional, and national earthly and galactic tele-networks.

Communication is key for interacting and living, and for sharing ideas. The ongoing global battle for the 5G dominant standard has its own dosages of geopolitics. The US, UK, and other countries, banning Chinese companies supplying components and equipment for use in their national systems. Opening the door for Finnish, Japanese and Swedish companies to filling up the gap left by the retreating Chinese ones.

A bi-hemispheric technological systems looming. Many poor countries have no choice than to buy and use Chinese equipment, such creating a group of dependent countries. Even as they do not have the requisite domestic expertise for detecting embedded spying devices. Let alone developing the countermeasures for preventing the surveillance of strategic political conversations and possible thefts of intellectual properties.

Another group of advanced economies being led by the US is pushing for software-defined 5G networks. One which replaces most hardware technologies, the Chinese are leading one, with software innovations. The Open RAN is a manifestation of the open political economy of the successful countries.

The open design ensuring interoperability. A strategy which promotes the flourishing of innovations at the core and edges of the system. The focus on implementing an open infrastructure, which foregrounds a creative innovation structure. Such digital enabling makes exploring the full potentials of emerging technologies, affording more avenues for different solutions. Bringing informational, space, stratospheric and terrestrial platforms together for individual and integrated explorations.

The possibilities for commercial market are huge. Smartphone-totting users can ever increasingly share with integrated social media platforms with faster and more enriched experience. The military also benefits. Martial platforms, systems and technologies are increasingly networked. Being linked together in the physical and virtual spheres. Balloons and drones becoming aerial or stratospheric pylons for 5G antennas and transmitters.

Cybersecurity is imperative. No military will want its hypersonic plane or its missile detecting satellites render inoperative by hackers and hijackers. Nor wanting to turn a loyal autonomous Skyborg drone against its controlling-fighter jet. Hence, the need for investment and vigilance in developing detection and jamming devices. These working together in a national civilian-military network, benefiting from AI-powered, blockchain-enabled and quantum-locked cybersecurity infrastructure.

Personal security benefits as much. An invincible infrared or laser lights criss-crossing a room can help in detecting unpermitted or unwanted intrusion. Such light-spewing devices connected to a 5G network, can raise alarm using AI for identifying unusual activities and figures in the room.

The outdooring person can be notified of such intrusions, if its smartphone is blockchained in the network, having an unusual interruption between entangled and superimposed qubits, detecting. Such also can be used for detecting criminal and illegal local or remote logins into personal and organisational computing devices.

Companies and countries are exploring these possibilities. And their professional, industrial, residential, and virtual assets being made safer by such. Moreover, economic growth and productivity being bolstered by the entrepreneurial flourishing, that harbingers and underpins the driving creativity and innovations.

The emerging new economy is by Digimechanics. The old and the new, extant and emergent, physical and digital, combining for creating better, greener and more enterprises, industries, regions, systems, services and technologies. Getting there requiring R&D-manufacturing integration.

Jetry and rocketry came by such. And the emerging Scramjetry requires such linked doing, intuiting, making, and thinking. Corporate, civic and countryal regeneration possible by developing and making hypersonic technologies the nucleus for driving and powering the deepening and integration of the creating of the emerging and established services and technologies.  

R&D alone is not enough for placial developments. Using and mixing comprehension with craftsmanship both operational, strategic, and tactical for creating & generating wellbeing and wealth. Even as some nations are jousting for supremacy, and others are joining up with like-minded or convenient others.

The imperative of using knowledge developed in a place for creating practical and real services and technologies, is getting stark. As one nation is using the blood and sweats of another for making strategic developments. Knowledge sharing is key, but it is more essential that R&D is closely aligned with the resident capability and capacity to design and manufacture the inventions into innovations.

Buying a technology system, without the ability to have strong inputs into or voice about how it is made can be hampering. Especially, when a majority stake in the maker is by a company owned by shareholders from a region, a country is about to separate from. Of course, having the other majority shareholder coming from a friendly nation can ameliorate. Nonetheless, ownership over the whole spectrum of the whole innovation process is strategic.

Mastering geopolitics is part of building global businesses and for nations to relate and iron out their differences. Bi-hemispheric contentions aside, Brexit is shaping up to realign civic, global, continental, and national diplomacy & politics.

Scram

The imminent arrival of Hypersonia poises to change how cities, companies and countries do, make, relate, and transact. Both the military quasi-markets and commercial ones will be transformed. Entrepreneurs and innovators using knowledge and creating new ones leading the charge.

Starting up is key for breaking out of the status quo. Making rooms for path creations. Jetry and rocketry are advancing, as further innovations creating avenues for pushing boundaries, and more productive technologies, tools, and services emerging. Scramjetry building on and taking from these, for creating unprecedented propulsion systems.

A transformation requires successfully navigating various hurdles. Either institutional, organisational, mindset, technological and standard ones. Breakthrough ideas often come from individuals, and transformative doing and making by intentional and purposive collaborations. Including interpersonal, intercorporate, and international ones.

Independence is key for breakthroughs. Even as entrepreneurial scaling requires pioneering and purposeful individuals to build the teams they intentionally hire or select to create and develop according to the blueprint. Of course, requiring inherent flexibility to branch, combine and pivot. Reconciling different professional views, ideological contestations, and contravening mindsets, all to directing the corporate mindscape to the foundational purpose.

The suitable hubs or hublets are places where ideas and inventions becoming reality. The successful ones have an innovation structure that is open in allowing intentional doing and making to happen. Having an atmosphere that enables flowering, flourishing and fruitfulness. Creating a virtuous cycle of sparks lighting up the extant and emerging lamps for illuminating others, deepening, and spreading innovativeness in a place, from which local, regional, national, and global economies build on and can contribute to.

The convergence of space, stratospheric and terrestrial spheres advancing the development and commercialisation of hypersonic technologies. Bringing the vision of regular earthbound point-to-point hyper speed flights ever closer. To scram is future-making.

Personally, I am humble to see that the various technologies I was exposed to or helped in facilitating a decade ago, are becoming realities. Pushed for an innovative global satellite communication system, desired hyper speed flights for solving the economic and health problems associated with long distance flights, advocated for & exposed to a hypersonic engine design, and invited to an idea of using satellites for harnessing and transferring solar power from space to earth.

Even envisioning the military sharing its valuable spectra for building space-terrestrial tele-networks for the benefits of the national economy. And seeing airships or dirigibles as cargo-ships in infrastructure-poor, low-resource settings with vast geographical expanse. Balloons and drones working with satellites and terrestrial networks for telecommunication.

There are others. Visiting a world class biomedical laboratory and seeing rapid testing being carried out with digital devices. Observing the ‘world’s first’ holographic presentation by the projection of the presenter in its full virtual image standing on the stage.

Another was been exposed to an earlier stablecoin design. And this taught me a valuable lesson in treating expert advice with care and wisdom. A design for a blockchain-like currency tethered to gold was mooted. Not having an expertise in this area, I contacted a colleague at a renowned international financial organisation. The feedback ten years ago, was this cannot work in any economy.

The world since then has changed remarkedly. And even changing faster since the pandemic erupted. Today blockchain currencies are on the ascendance. And ever since, I have come to appreciate the enormous potentials of this and other emerging technologies. Even giving ideas about using blockchain with acquittances and friends. Reading this[12] has enabled me to envision an “internetsium”.

A global communication network integrating with the extant internet, making use of the instruments of AI, blockchain, cloud, quantum, and others for a truthful and transparent platform. One, which enables users for making judicious decisions about the allocation, protection, and selection of secure distributed doing, interacting, living, making, servicing, and worshipping.

The convergence of digital, mechanical, and physical technologies is emerging in platforms, places, and systems, which support intentional and purposeful innovations. Creating and making hypersonic technologies will accelerate and benefit from the various combinatorial actions and activities.

A year has passed since this series began. And since then, it has been a creative and learning journey. Being visionary is fundamental for seeing beyond the status quo, and imagining the various resources and technologies that make such becoming reality. Peoples and places require the capacities and capabilities for turning their ideas into real products and services that uplift and transform lives and economies.

The interlude can either be helpful or hampering. The proto-jet one, developing the supercharger delayed the full & real manifestation of the power of jetry. Even though, it later helped in turbocharging jet engines, it was still a distraction. Covid-19 has been an innovative interlude for some sectors and not for others. Identifying and making the best use of an interlude key for advancement and success. The rapidly growing quasi markets for military hypersonics must quickly spillover to the civilian economy.

Successful economies and organisations have productive and reinforcing linkages amongst their various like-minded and purposive constituents. Linking the civilian with the military, the big and small, space, stratosphere with the terrestrial. Those that foster such growth-enhancing linkages, are the ones flourishing on the way to Hyperspacia.

The mind is the limit. Nothing is impossible.

Merry Christmas in Advance. God Bless. Jesus Cares & Saves.

Wikipedia helps in clarifying details on certain persons and institutes. And clarifying the technical definitions and capabilities of certain engine designs.

The websites of the companies developing spaceplanes are useful in clarifying their designs and types.

Every content, concept, idea, theme, thought, term and structure, in this article and every article on this LinkedIn platform belongs to the author. No direct solicitation is being made to any person or organisation in writing these articles. Any contention or disagreement will be kindly addressed.

[1] Going deeper is by inspiration and curiosity. Woke up one morning with the thought of using ScramLACE as an engine design for powering a single stage to orbit spaceplane. For solving the problem of reusability. Was waking up pronouncing it. Following this, started searching for more information about the technology. Gaining more insights into how transformative the technology can be for advancing Scramjetry.

[2] Cryogenic Hydrogen-induced Air-Liquefaction Technologies for Combined-Cycle Propulsion Applications by William J.D. Escher (NASA).

[3] Oblique Detonation Wave Ramjet by Richard B. Morrison (NASA Contractor Report 159192). 1980. Informative in understanding this form of hypersonic engine.

[4] Finding Early Jet Engines and the Transition from Centrifugal to Axial Compressors: A Case Study in Technology Change by Brian John Nichelson, informative. Helping in filling in the gaps in the early days of jetry.

[5] This e-publication – Farnborough and The Beginnings of Gas Turbine Propulsion by F.W. Armstrong. Informative about these early developments. Helping in filling the gaps in the last essay.

[6] Reading, The Builder: A Biography of Ezra Cornell by Phillip Dorf in 2014. Informative about his life and his craftsmanship and entrepreneurial efforts. Also, about the co-developments of railway and telecommunication technologies during the 2nd Industrial Revolution in the US.

[7] Bubbles and Crashes: The Boom and Bust of Technological Innovation. By Brent Goldfarb & David A. Kirsch.

[8] System Studies on Space Plane Powered by Scram/LACE Propulsion System by M. Maita, H. Miyajima, & T. Mori. Presented at the AIAA 4th International Aerospace Planes Conference in 1992.

[9] The quest for a deeper understanding the current state of the early industrial hub, leads to finding this report. Long Island Technology Startups: 2015 Status Report & Survey for Accelerate Long Island by John L. Kominicki.

[10] Reading the biography of Theodore von Karman, informative about its various scientific and entrepreneurial outputs and outcomes. Including the works he did with Frank Molina and training a Chinese American scientist, who later went to establish China’s rocket industry.

[11] Reading The Talisman: The Autography of Marcel Dassault The Creator of Mirage Jet in 2014. Informative about entrepreneurialism in the aerospace industry. And about its strategic importance for France.

[12] The Truth Machine: The Blockchain and The Future of Everything by Michael J. Casey & Paul Vigna. A dated photographic proof is available.