How we remember

Sensory memory

Stimuli are first processed by sensory organs (eyes, ears, etc.) and enter sensory memory, which is extremely brief, lasting only milliseconds to a few seconds. The brain selectively filters what we pay attention to, allowing this information to move into conscious awareness in our working memory.

Working memory

Working memory, often referred to as short-term memory in some contexts, is where information is actively held and manipulated. Its capacity is limited, varying by individual factors like age, cognitive abilities, and the complexity of the information. On average, it can hold between four and seven chunks of information.

Long-term memory

If information is encoded into long-term memory, it can be stored for extended periods, potentially indefinitely. However, forgetting can occur at any stage of this process: through decay in sensory memory, interference in working memory, or retrieval failure in long-term memory.

To actively think about material stored in long-term memory, it must be retrieved and brought into working memory. This process allows us to apply and integrate stored knowledge with new information.

Neural connections in the brain are strengthened and reinforced through repeated exposure and practice, a process known as long-term potentiation. A single exposure to information is rarely enough to create lasting learning; effective learning typically requires repetition, spaced over time, and meaningful engagement with the material.

Schemas

In long-term memory, information is organized into schemas, which are mental frameworks that help the brain work more efficiently by connecting related concepts. Schemas are shaped uniquely by individual learners as they link knowledge and derive meaning from their experiences. While schemas facilitate understanding, they can also introduce biases, as the brain may rely on them to fill in gaps in memory, sometimes inaccurately.